APPLE 
GROWING 

BY M.C BURRITT 





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APPLE GROWING 



APPLE 
GROWING 


BY 

M. C. BURRITT 

11 


NEW YORK 

OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY 

MCMXII 



h^[^ 



CopyniGHr, 1912, By 
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY. 



All rights reserved. 



SC!.A316254 



PREFACE 

In the preparation of this book I have tried 
to keep constantly before me the conditions 
of the average farm In the Northeastern States 
with Its small apple orchard. It has been my 
aim to set down only such facts as would be of 
practical value to an owner of such a farm 
and to state these facts in the plain language 
of experience. This book Is In no sense In- 
tended as a final scientific treatment of the 
subject, and if it Is of any value In helping 
to make the fruit department of the general 
farm more profitable the author will be entirely 
satisfied. 

The facts herein set down were first learned 
in the school of practical experience on the 
writer's own farm in Western New York. 
They were afterwards supplemented by some 
theoretical training and by a rather wide obser- 
vation of farm orchard conditions and methods 
in New York, Pennsylvania, the New Eng- 
land States and other contiguous territory. 
These facts were first put together In some- 

5 



PREFACE 

thing like their present form in the winter of 
1909-10, when the writer gave a series of 
lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the 
Short Courses in Horticulture at Cornell Uni- 
versity. These lectures were revised and re- 
peated In 1910-11 and are now put in their 
present form. 

The author's sincere thanks are due to Pro- 
fessor C. S. Wilson, of the Department of 
Pomology at Cornell University, for many 
valuable facts and suggestions used in this book, 
and for a careful reading of the manuscript. 
He Is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. 
Anthony of the same Department for correc- 
tions and suggestions on the chapters on Insects 
and Diseases and on Spraying. 

M. C. BURRITT. 

Hilton, N. Y. 
February, 19 12. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Outlook for the Growing of 

Apples ii 

II. Planning for the Orchard . , . i8 

III. Planting and Growing the Orchard 30 

IV. Pruning the Trees , 48 

V. Cultivation and Cover Cropping . . 62 

VI. Manuring and Fertilizing .... 78 
VII. Insects and Diseases Affecting the 

Apple 92 

Vlll. The Principles and Practice of 

Spraying 108 

IX. Harvesting and Storing 127 

X. Markets and Marketing . . .142 
XI. Some Hints on Renovating Old 

Orchards ......... i53 

XII. The Cost of Growing Apples . . .164 



APPLE GROWING 



CHAPTER I 

THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES 

THE APPLE has long been the most popu- 
lar of our tree fruits, but the last few- 
years have seen a steady growth in its 
appreciation and use. This is probably due in 
a large measure to a better knowledge of its 
value and to the development of new methods 
of preparation for consumption. Few fruits 
can be utilized in as many ways as can the 
apple. In addition to the common use of the 
fresh fruit out of hand and of the fresh, sweet 
juice as cider, this " King of Fruits " can be 
cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into 
jellies and other appetizing dishes, to enumerate 
all of which would be to prepare a list pages 
long. Few who have tasted once want to be 
without their apple sauce and apple pies in 
season, not to mention the crisp, juicy speci- 
mens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace 
in the long winter evenings. Apples thus 
served call up pleasant memories to most of us, 
but only recently have the culinary possibilities 
II 



APPLE GROWING 

of the apple, especially as a dessert fruit, been 
fully realized. 

It is doubtless this realization of its great 
adaptability, together with is long season, which 
have brought the apple into so great demand of 
late. It is possible to have apples on the table 
in some form the year round. The first sum- 
mer apples are almost always with us before 
the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. 
Or, should the fresh fruit be too expensive or 
for some reason fail altogether, the housewife 
can fall back on the canned and dried fruit 
which are almost as good. 

The tendency in the price of this staple fruit 
has been constantly upward during the last 
decade. Many people are greatly surprised 
when the fact that apples cost more than 
oranges is called to their attention. The in- 
crease in consumption, due to the greater 
variety of ways of preparing the apple for use. 
has undoubtedly been an important factor in 
this higher price. But at least an equally im- 
portant factor is the marked decrease in the 
supply of this fruit. To those who are not 
familiar with the facts, the great falling off 
in production which the figures show will be 
no less than startling. 

12 



THE OUTLOOK FOR GROWING 

Production op Appi,e;s in BarreIvS in the United 
States from 1896 to 19 10 

1896 69,070,000 

1897 41,530,000 

1898 28,570,000 

1899 37,460,000 

1900 56,820,000 

Total crop for five years 233,450,000 

Average crop for five years 46,690000 

1901 26,970,000 

1902 46,625,000 

1903 , 42,626,000 

1904 45,360,000 

1905 24,310,000 

Total crop for five years 185,891,000 

Average crop for five years 37,178,200 

1906 38,280,000 

1907 , 29,540,000 

1908 25,850,000 

1909 25,415,000 

1910 23,825,000 

Total crop for five years 142,910,000 

Average crop for five years 28,582,000 

Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from " Better Fruit," 
Vol. 5, No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the 
" American Agriculturist." 

It will thus be seen that the apple crop 
of 19 10 was 45,245,000 barrels less than that 
of 1896, and that during the whole period of 
fifteen years the decline has been regular. The 
average annual crop of the five year period 
ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less 
than the average annual crop of the preceding 
five years ending with 1900, and correspond- 
13 



APPLE GROWING 

ingly the annual average crop of the last ^Yt 
years, ending with 19 lo, was 8,596,200 barrels 
less than that of the second five year period. 
Comparing the first and the last five year 
periods, we find that the crop of the last was 
18,108,000 barrels less than that of the first. 
These facts alone are enough to explain the 
higher price of this fruit during the last ten 
years. 

Heavy Plantings. — Moreover, It should 
be further noted that this falling off In the 
apple crop has been In the face of the heaviest 
plantings ever known in this country. During 
the last ten years old fruit growing regions 
like western New York have practically doubled 
their orchard plantings. Careful figures 
gathered by the New York State Agricultural 
College In an orchard survey of Monroe 
County show that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in 
all) were planted in one representative town- 
ship during the five year period from 1904 to 
1908 inclusive than were ever planted in any 
other equal period In its history. New fruit 
regions like the Northwestern States and a 
large part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia 
have been developed by heavy plantings. These 
three are all great commercial sections. To 
14 



THE OUTLOOK FOR GROWING 

therm we might add thousands of orchards 
which are scattered all over the Northern and 
Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and 
from Maine to north Georgia. 

It is doubtful, however, if these scattered 
plantings have made good the older trees which 
have died out. Scarcely a season passes that 
hundreds of these old veteran trees are not 
blown down or badly broken. Every wind takes 
its toll. After one of these windstorms in 
Southern New York the writer estimated that 
at least twenty per cent, of all the standing 
old apple trees had been destroyed or badly 
broken. In the commercial regions only a 
small part of the new plantings have yet come 
to bearing and even here these probably do 
not much more than make good the losses of 
old trees. So that on the whole, heavy as 
our plantings have been, it is extremely doubt- 
ful if they have very much more than made 
good the losses of the older trees throughout 
the country. It is a fact worthy of note that 
this talk of over-planting the apple has been 
going on for over thirty years, and while the 
timid ones talked those who had faith in the 
business and the courage of their convictions 
planted apples and reaped golden harvests 

15 



APPLE GROWING 

while their neighbors still talked of over- 
planting. 

Whether or not It Is true that we have over- 
planted the apple, It must be admitted that at 
the present time the demand Is so much greater 
than the supply that the poorer of our people 
cannot afford to use apples commonly, and that 
no class of farmer In the Northeastern States 
is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The 
new plantings must of necessity begin to bear 
and become factors In the market very slowly. 
Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present 
lies In making the most possible out of the 
older orchards which are already In bearing. 
Practically all of these old farm orchards which 
can present a fairly clean bill of health, and 
in which the varieties are desirable, can with 
a small amount of well directed effort be put 
to work at once and during the next ten years 
or more of their life time, they may be made to 
add a substantial Income to that of the general 
farm. Now Is a time of opportunity for the 
owner of the small farm apple orchard. 

Future of Apple Growing — In the 

writer's opinion the future of apple growing 

in the United States is likely to shape itself 

largely In the great commercial regions. As 

i6 



THE OUTLOOK FOR GROWING 

these become more and more developed and as 
the Industry becomes more specialized the 
farmer who Is merely growing apples as a 
side line, except where he Is delivering directly 
to a special or a local market, will be crowded 
out. Here as elsewhere it will be a case of the 
survival of the fittest. In the production of 
apples commercially those growers who can 
produce the best article the most cheaply are 
bound to win out In the end. 

It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for 
the general farmer to plant apples only under 
two conditions; first, when he has a very favor- 
able location and site and plants heavily enough 
to make It worth while to have the equipment 
and skilled labor necessary to make the enter- 
prise a success, and second, when he can market 
his fruit directly in a local market. It would 
appear that the Immediate future of apple 
growing In the United States lies in the small 
farm orchard as well as In the commercial 
orchards, but that the more distant future 
lies In the commercial orchard except where 
special conditions surround the farm. 



n 



CHAPTER II 

PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 

LOCATION. — Having decided that under 
certain conditions the planting of an 
apple orchard will prove a profitable 
venture, and having ascertained that those con- 
ditions prevail on your farm, the next step will 
be to determine the best location on the farm 
for the orchard. In choosing this location it 
will be well to keep in mind the relative im- 
portance of the orchard in the scheme of farm 
management. If the orchard is merely a source 
of home supply, naturally it will not require 
as important a position on the farm as will be 
the case if it is expected to yield a larger share 
of the farm income. If the relatively large 
net income per acre which it is possible to obtain 
from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best 
possible location is demanded. 

Contrary to the common ideas and practice 
of the past, the orchard should not be put upon 
i8 



PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 

the poorest soil on the farm. The best or- 
chards occupy the best soils, although fairly 
good results are often obtained on poor or 
medium soils. The relative importance which 
is attached to the orchard enterprise must also 
govern the choice of soil. If apples are to be 
a prominent crop they should be given the pref- 
erence as to soil; if not, they may be given a 
place In accordance with what is expected of 
them. 

Soils — In general, the apple prefers a rather 
strong soil, neither very heavy nor very light. 
Subsoil is rather more important than surface 
soil, although the latter should be friable and 
easily worked. The apple follows good timber 
successfully. Heavy clay soils are apt to be too 
cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too 
loose and dry. A medium clay loam or a 
gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a some- 
what heavier but fairly open clay subsoil 
is thought to be the best soil for apples. 
Broadly considered, medium loams are best. 
The lighter the soil the better will be the 
color of the fruit as a rule, and so, also, 
the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and 
moisture it holds the greater the tendency to 
poorly colored fruit. In the same way light 

19 



APPLE GROWING 

soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as 
compared with the large rank leaves and wood 
of trees on heavy, rich soils. 

Varietal Soil Preferences are beginning 
to be recognized. We cannot go into these 
in detail in this brief discussion. A few sugges- 
tions regarding standard varieties must suffice. 
Medium to light loams or heavy sandy loams, 
underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay 
loams, are preferred by the Baldwin, which 
has a wider soil adaptation than practically any 
other variety. Baldwin soils should dry quickly 
after a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires 
a rather rich, moist, but well drained soil, con- 
taining an abundance of organic matter. A 
light to heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty 
clay loam, is considered best. 

Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil 
requirements. A medium loam, underlaid by 
a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. 
Heavy soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light 
soils cause the tree to grow upright and to bear 
fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil 
slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, 
but retentive of moisture. Hubbardson will 
utilize the sandiest soil of any northern variety, 
preferring rich, fine, sandy loams. 
20 



PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 

The particular location of the apple orchard 
is largely a matter of convenience. It should 
be remembered, however, that the apple re- 
quires much and constant attention, therefore 
the orchard should be convenient of access. 
The product is rather bulky, so that the haul 
to the highway should be as short as possible. 
Other conditions being equally good there, the 
common location near the buildings and high- 
way is best. 

The Site of the Orchard is a more im- 
portant matter. Two essentials should be kept 
in mind, good air drainage and a considerable 
elevation. Although it is not so apparent and 
therefore less thought about, cold air runs down 
hill the same as water. Being heavier, it falls 
to the surface of the land, flowing out through 
the water channels and settling in pockets and 
depressions. Warm air, being lighter, rises. 
It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant 
air or cold air pockets where frost and fogs 
are liable to occur. A free movement of air, 
especially a draining away of cold air, is best 
secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred 
feet, or sometimes less, is usually sufiiclent, 
especially where there is good outlet below. 
Frosts occur in still, clear air and these con- 
21 



APPLE GROWING 

ditlons occur most frequently in the lower 
areas. 

Aspect or slope requires less attention. 
Southern exposures are warm and hasten bud 
development and opening in spring. Northern 
exposures are cold and retard the blossoming 
period. It is usually advisable to plant the 
apple on the colder slopes which hold it back 
in spring until all danger of late frosts is past. 
Northeast exposures are best as a general rule. 
Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind 
if possible. If this is impracticable it is often 
advisable to plant a wind break of pine, spruce, 
or a quick, thick growing native tree to protect 
the orchard from heavy winds. 

A large body of water is an important modi- 
fier of climate. Warming up more slowly in 
the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giv- 
ing up its cold. Vice versa, cooling more 
slowly in the fall giving up its heat wards 
off the early frosts. It is therefore de- 
sirable to locate near such bodies of water 
if possible. Their influence varies accord- 
ing to their size and depth, and the dis- 
tance of the orchard from them. Good ex- 
amples of this influence are the Chautauqua 
Grape Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie 
22 



PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 

and the Western New York Apple Belt on the 
south shore of Lake Ontario. 

Professor Brackett has well summed up the 
whole question: "The selection of the soil 
and site for the apple orchard is not governed 
by any arbitrary rule/' he says. "All farms 
do not afford the best soils or exposures for 
orchards. The owners of such as do not are 
unfortunate, yet they should not feel discour- 
aged to the extent of not planting trees and 
caring for them afterward." There are a num- 
ber of factors which Influence not only a person 
who wishes to locate, but one already located, 
either favorably or unfavorably. About these 
even the most Intelligent orchardlsts often 
differ. We have only laid down general prin- 
ciples and given opinions. Here as elsewhere 
application Is a matter of judgment. 

Varieties. — A proper soil and a good loca- 
tion and site having been selected, the next 
Important question to be decided Is the varieties 
to be planted. So much and so variable advice 
Is given on this question that many persons are 
at a loss as to what to plant and too often 
decide the matter by planting the wrong varie- 
ties. Rightly viewed, the question of varieties 
Is a comparatively simple one. Personal prefer- 

23 



APPLE GROWING 

ence, tempered by careful study of certain fac- 
tors and good judgment, are all that are re- 
quired. Beginners, especially, are too apt to 
rely entirely on another's opinion. The only 
safe way is to learn the facts and then decide 
for yourself. 

We have already indicated that soil is a 
determinant in the choice of varieties. This 
should be absolute. It is very unwise to try 
to grow any variety on a soil where experience 
has shown that it does not do well. The ex- 
perience of your neighbors is the best guide 
in this respect. 

The limitations of climate should also 
be carefully heeded. An apple may be at its 
best in one latitude or one situation and at its 
worst in another. Find out from experienced 
growers in your region, or from your State 
Experiment Station what varieties are best 
adapted climatically to the place where you live. 
It is an excellent rule never to plant a variety 
that you cannot grow at least as well as any 
one else, or still better, to plant a variety that 
you can grow better than anyone else. Grow 
something that not everyone can grow. Do 
not try to produce more of a variety of which 
there is already an over supply. 
24 



I 



PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 

A few examples may make this more clear. 
Western New York is the home of the Baldwin, 
the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle 
Pippins grown on the eastern slope of the Blue 
Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg appears 
at its best in the Northwest. The Northern 
Spy, the Mcintosh, and the Fameuse are not 
to be excelled as they are grown in the Cham- 
plain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To 
attempt to compete with these sections in the 
growing of these varieties, except under equally 
favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your 
section probably grows some varieties to per- 
fection. Find out what these varieties are and 
plant them. 

All these are general factors to be observed 
which cannot be specifically settled without 
knowing the soil and particular locality. Cer- 
tain other factors governing the choice of varie- 
ties can be more definitely outlined. If the pro- 
spective orchardist will get these factors thor- 
oughly in mind and apply them with judgment 
mistakes in planting should be much more rare. 
The more important ones are : The purpose for 
which the fruit is intended to be used, whether 
for the general market, a dessert or fancy 
trade, or for culinary and general table use; 

25 



APPLE GROWING 

whether the trees are to be permanent and long 
lived, or temporary and used as fillers; whether 
the earliest possible income is desired or 
whether this is to be secondary to the future 
development of the orchard; whether the stock 
of the particular variety is strong or weak 
growing; whether the variety is high, medium, 
or low as to quality; and whether the market is 
to be local, distant, or export. 

The following tables were originally com- 
piled by Professor C. S. Wilson of Cornell Uni- 
versity. They have been slightly revised and 
modified for our purpose. We believe that 
they are essentially correct and that they will 
be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his 
selection of varieties: 



Gknerai, Market Apples Dessert or Fancy Trade 
Commercial Box Well 

Baldwin Mclntosli 

Ben Davis Northern Spy 

Hubbardson Fameuse 

Northern Spy Wagener 

King Grimes Golden 

Rome Beauty Yellow Newton 

Oldenburg Red Canada 

Alexander King 

Twenty Ounce Sutton 

Winesap Hubbardson 

York Imperial Esopus Spitzenburg 
26 



PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 



Culinary and GeneraIv TabIvE Use 



Rhode Island Greening 

Gravenstein 

Newtown 

Alexander 

Tolman Sweet 

Good Permanent Trees 
Baldwin 

Rhode Island Greening 
Northern Spy 
Mcintosh 
*King 

^Twenty Ounce 
*Hubbardson 

Alexander 

Rome Beauty 



Grimes Golden 
Twenty Ounce 
Yellow Bellflower 
Oldenburg 
Sweet Winesap 

Good Temporary Trees 

FlELERS 
Mcintosh 
Wealthy 
Wagener 
Rome Beauty 
Oldenburg 
Jonathan 
Alexander 
Twenty Ounce 
Hubbardson 



*When this variety is set as a permanent tree it 
should be top worked on a hardier stock, such as North- 
ern Spy. 

Age at which variety may be expected to 
begin to fruit. (Add two years for a paying 
crop). 



Five Years or Under 
Rome Beauty 
Oldenburg 
Maiden Blush 
Wagener 
Yellow Newton 
Mcintosh 
Fameuse 
King 

Rhode Island Gr. 
Twenty Ounce 
Winesap 



Eight Years and Up 
Esopus Spitzenburg 
Fall Pippin 
Golden Russet 
Northern Spy 
Baldwin 
Gravenstein 
Tolman Sweet 



27 



APPLE GROWING 



EsPEciAi,i.Y Hardy Stocks 

Northern Spy 

Tolman Sweet 

Ben Davis 

Baldwin 

Fameuse 

Winter Banana 

*Other varieties are medium. 
High in Quauty 
Mcintosh 

Esopus Spitzenburg 
Northern Spy 
Newtown 
Gravenstein 
Red Canada 
Fameuse 
Grimes Golden 
Hubbardson 
Rhode Island Greening 
Medium to Poor Quai^ity 
Ben Davis 
Oldenburg 
Rome Beauty 
Roxbury Russet 



Poor Rather Weak 
Growers* 
King 

Twenty Ounce 
Esopus Spitzenburg 
Hubbardson 
Grimes Golden 
Sutton 
Canada Red 



Local or Peddler's Varie- 
ties 

Rhode Island Greening 

Wealthy 

Mcintosh 

Fameuse 

Tolman Sweet 

Grimes Golden 

Jonathan 

Good General Market 
Varieties 

Baldwin 

Rhode Island 

King 

Twenty Ounce 

Mcintosh 

Hubbardson 

Northern Spy 



i 



Good Export Varieties 



Baldwin 
Ben Davis 
Northern Spy 



Newtown 

Esopus Spitzenburg 

Jonathan 



Only the best and most common varieties 
for the more northern latitudes have been m- 
cluded In this list as It would make It too cum- 
bersome to classify all our known varieties. It 
28 



J 



PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 

must be remembered that this is not an arbi- 
trary classification and that it is made as a guide 
to indicate to the reader the general character- 
istics of the variety. It should be used as such 
and not taken literally. The characters of the 
different varieties grade into each other. For 
example, the Mcintosh is very high and the Ben 
Davis is Very lov7 in quality but the King and 
the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor 
very poor, but midway between. 

We must again remind the reader that the 
choice of varieties is a matter of judgment, 
tempered by the facts regarding them. One 
who is not capable of rendering such judgment 
after studying his conditions and the character- 
istics and requirements of leading varieties had 
better stay out of the apple business entirely, 
as he will often be called on for the exercise 
of good judgment in caring for the orchard. 
The facts here given are intended as suggestive. 
The reader who desires to know more of a par- 
ticular variety will do well to consult Beach's 
"Apples of New York," published by the Ge- 
neva Experiment Station. 



29 



CHAPTER III 

PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD 

THE proper soil^ site, and location having 
been selected, the solution of the prob- 
lems of orchard management is only just 
begun, although a good start has certainly been 
made. Farm management brings constantly to 
one's attention new problems and new phases of 
old problems, whatever the type of farming. 
The skill with which these problems are met and 
a solution found for them determines the suc- 
cess or failure of the farm manager. To some 
men the details of the orchard business offer 
the greatest obstacles, while to others it is 
the general relationship of one detail to another 
which is difficult. Both are essentials of good 
management. If we are able in this chapter 
to remove some of these minor difficulties and 
at the same time indicate the correct relation- 
ships we will have accomplished our purpose. 
As we come now to the actual plans for plant- 
ing our orchard many questions come up for 
30 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

answer. When shall I plant? Where and of 
whom shall I purchase my trees? How old 
should they be? Is It wise to use fillers or 
temporary trees, and If so, what kind? How 
far apart should the trees be planted and how 
many are required for an acre ? What arrange- 
ment of the trees Is most advisable? How 
should the ground be prepared? What Is the 
best method of setting? When the trees are 
planted should they be Inter-cropped, and if 
so, with what? How should the young trees 
be handled and cared for? He who would be 
a successful orchardist must endeavor to answer 
these questions. 

When to Plant. — The question of fall or 
spring planting Is a less Important one with a 
comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than It 
Is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Ap- 
ples may safely be planted In the fall when soils 
are well drained and when the young trees are 
well matured, both of which are very Important 
if winter Injury Is to be avoided. Fall planting 
has several distinct advantages. During the 
winter fall planted trees become well estab- 
lished In the soil which enables them to start 
root growth earlier In the spring. Consequently 
the young trees are better able to endure 
31 



APPLE GROWING 

droughts. In the fall the weather is usually 
more settled and there is better opportunity 
to plant under favorable conditions than in the 
unsettled weather of spring. It is usually pos- 
sible, too, to get a better selection of trees at 
the nursery In the fall because most of the trees 
are not sold until midwinter. 

Still the fact remains that the common prac- 
tice of spring planting is the more conservative 
course. There is always danger of getting im- 
mature trees in the fall, and of winter injury 
to fall planted trees. Trees may be set in the 
fall any time after the buds are mature which 
is usually after October ist to i8th in the lati- 
tude of New York. They should not be prunned 
back In the fall, as this invites winter killing of 
the uppermost buds. The question of available 
time must also be considered. On some farms 
fall offers more time; on others, spring. To 
sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient 
time, providing the conditions are favorable. 

Where to Buy — But one rule as to 
where to buy trees can be laid down. 
Buy where you can secure the best trees 
and where you can be sure of the most 
reliable and honest dealers. Beware of 
the tree agent, who has been guilty of more dis- 
32 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

honesty and misrepresentation than almost any 
other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman 
under one condition only, that he prove to you 
that he is the bona fide representative of a well- 
known and reputable nursery firm, and then 
make your order subject to Investigation of 
the firm's standing and finding It as represented. 

The safest course Is usually to purchase of 
your home nurseryman with whose standing and 
honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you 
can personally Inspect. Such a man has a 
reputation at stake and will have an object In 
keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save 
freight, secure fresher stock with less liability 
of injury In handling, and get trees grown under 
your own conditions. If stock Is purchased 
away from home It is better to get It at a nursery 
In a more southern latitude In order to secure 
trees of better growth. 

All trees should be purchased In the late 
summer or early fall when the nurseryman has 
a full list of varieties and you can get the pick 
of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree 
two years old from the bud. One year old 
trees are preferred by many and if well grown 
and at least five feet high they are probably 
best. But a one year old tree Is rather more 
33 



APPLE GROWING 

delicate, requiring careful handling and intelli- 
gent training. Unless a person buys from a 
southern nursery and is an expert in handling 
trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred, 
but a skilful grower can make a more satis- 
factory tree from a one year old seedling. 

The average buyer must depend largely on 
his nurseryman for getting trees true to name, 
which Is the reason for laying so much emphasis 
on purchasing from an honest dealer. Some 
nurserymen guarantee their varieties to be true 
to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should 
demand It. The seeds of the apple rarely 
come true to the variety planted. They are 
therefore usually budded on one year old seed- 
lings Imported from France. Sometimes they 
are whole or piece root grafted which is equally 
as good a method of propagation. 

It is possible for a man to grow and bud 
or graft his own seedlings, but hardly advis- 
able for the average small grower or general 
farmer, as it Is usually expensive when done 
on a small scale and requires considerable skill. 
Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are 
often equally as good as firsts when they are 
simply smaller as a result of crowding in the 
nursery row. A tree which Is second grade be- 
34 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

cause of being stunted, crooked, or poorly 
grown should never be set. Thirds are seldom 
worth considering at any price. 

Fillers. — Whether or not the planter of an 
apple orchard should use fillers is a question 
which he alone must decide. In the writer's 
opinion there are more advantages than dis- 
advantages in so doing, but we must state both 
sides of the question and let the reader judge 
for himself. The term " filler " is one used 
to designate a tree planted in the orchard for 
the temporary purpose of profitably occupying 
the space between the permanent trees while 
these are growing and not yet in bearing. 
Fillers make a more complete use of the land, 
bringing in larger as well as quicker returns 
from it, three distinct advantages. (See Chap- 
ter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On 
the other hand, objections to their use are that 
they are often left in so long that they crowd 
and seriously injure the permanent trees, and 
that their care often requires different opera- 
tions and at different times from the other trees, 
such as spraying, which may result in injury to 
the permanent trees in the orchard. 

Trees used as fillers for apples should have 
two important characteristics; they should be 



APPLE GROWING 

rapid, vigorous growers and should come into 
bearing at a very early age. Two .kinds of 
fillers are available, those of the same species, 
which may be either dwarf or standard trees, 
and those of a different species, of which 
peaches and plums, and possibly pears, are the 
best adapted. Dwarf trees may be dismissed 
from our plans with the statement that they 
have rarely proved profiable under ordinary 
conditions, as they are much more difficult to 
grow than standards and when grown they have 
but few advantages over them. The varieties 
of standard apples which are advisable as fillers 
have been indicated in Chapter II. 

The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, 
both of which make excellent fillers because they 
grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing 
quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adap- 
tation. They are adapted to the lighter phases 
of soil and the more moderate climates and 
under other conditions are impracticable. On 
heavier soils and in more rigorous climates the 
European plums and the more rapid and early 
bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly 
good fillers. 

On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise 
the use of fillers In the general farm orchard. 

36 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

Quicker returns from an Investment of this 
nature, which is usually heavy and which at 
best must be put off several years, are very im- 
portant. Under careful and intelligent manage- 
ment the objections to their use are easily over- 
come. 

Spacing and Arrangement of Trees. — 
The distance apart of planting depends on the 
variety planted. Close headed, upright grow- 
ing trees may be planted closer together than 
spreading varieties. Some varieties grow 
larger than others, and the same variety may 
vary in size on different soils. It Is seldom ad- 
visable to plant standard apple trees In the lati- 
tude of New York closer than thirty feet, or 
farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the 
nature of Twenty Ounce and Oldenburg 
(Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two 
to thirty-six feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode 
Island Greenings, and Northern Spies repre- 
sent the other extreme and will require forty, 
and sometimes fifty feet of space. The method 
and thoroughness of pruning Influences the size 
of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which 
It is necessary to set them. 

Varieties top worked on other stocks have 
a tendency to grow more upright and may be 
37 



APPLE GROWING 

set closer together. It should be remembered 
in this connection that the roots of a tree extend 
considerably beyond the spread of the branches. 
From thirty-five to forty feet is a good average 
distance and trees should be trained so as to 
occupy this space and no more. Where fillers 
are used the latter distance is best, as the twenty 
feet apart at which the trees will then stand 
Is close enough for any standard variety. 

Rectangular. — The method of setting or 
the arrangement of the trees will greatly in- 
fluence the number of trees which may be put 
upon an acre and the distance apart of the trees 
in the row. The most common method in the 
past has been the regular square or rectangular 
method, e. g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty 
by fifty feet, and rows at right angles, and this 
is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay 
out an orchard on this plan and there is less 
liability of making mistakes. It is best adapted 
to regular fields with right angle corners, espe- 
cially where the orchard is to be cropped with a 
regular rotation. All tillage operations are 
most easily performed in orchards set on this 
plan. 

A slight modification of this arrangement 
which is often advisable, especially where fillers 
38 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

are used, Is to set a tree In the center of the 
square. The trees then stand like the five spots 
of a domino, and the shortest distance between 
trees will be about twenty-seven feet when the 
trees in the regular rows are forty by forty 
feet apart. This plan practically doubles the 
number of trees which can be set on an 
acre. 

Hexagonal or Triangular. — - Another 
method of arrangement of the trees which is 
becoming more and more popular is the hexa- 
gonal or triangular system. More trees can 
be planted on an acre by this plan than by any 
other, it being very economical of space. It 
makes all adjacent trees equally distant from 
each other and Is really a system of equilateral 
triangles. This plan is better adapted to small 
areas and especially to irregular ones, and 
should be employed where land is expensive and 
culture very intensive. It Is more difficult to 
set an orchard after this method without error, 
and It is open to the objection of inconvenience 
in cultural operations. Most people forget that 
while the rows running cornerwise in a rect- 
angular or square field set after this plan may 
be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle 
rows (not trees) In which it may be more con- 
39 



APPLE GROWING 

venlent to work are actually much closer to- 
gether. 

The best plan to follow to get the rows 
of trees straight on a level field is what is known 
as the outside stake method. This plan requires 
the placing of a rov/ of stakes on each of the 
four sides of the field where the trees are to 
be set and usually about two rows each way 
through the middle. For this purpose ordinary 
building laths are best, about one hundred and 
fifty laths, or three bundles, being required for 
five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set 
at once by this plan. 

First, determine the distance from the road 
or fence to the first tree row, which would be 
at least eighteen feet to allow for turning the 
teams, and establish base lines on each side of 
the field at right angles to each other. 

Second, beginning at the given distance from 
the side of the field, set up a row of stakes 
along these base lines at the exact distance apart 
at which the trees are to be set and about half 
way between the fence and the first right angle 
row. Do the same on all sides of the field. 

Third, by sighting across the field from one 
end stake to the other the cross rows of stakes 
can be set through the middle of the field, 
40 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

These should be about six or eight rods apart, 
and care should be used to avoid setting them 
where they will interfere with the sighting of 
the right angle rows. This plan has the great 
merit of enabling the entire orchard to be set 
without moving a stake, as no stake stands 
where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set 
exactly where the sight lines cross at right 
angles and if all rows are an equal distance 
apart, the rows will be perfectly straight. 

On rough or rolling land this plan does not 
work well. Here more simple methods, 
though requiring more time, must be used. 
Lines drawn with a cord or marked across the 
field with a corn planter answer well for small 
areas. Poles of the right length are often used 
to good advantage. In setting trees after the 
hexagonal plan an equilateral triangle made 
of light poles or wire is probably best, es- 
pecially on small rough areas, as it is very 
accurate, simple, and quite rapid. Some men 
prefer to make measurements and set a stake 
at every point where a tree is to be placed. In 
these cases a simple device locates the original 
stakes after the hole has been dug. A light 
board about six feet long v/ith a notch in the 
center and holes with pegs in them at each end 
41 



APPLE GROWING 

Is placed with the notch at the stake. One end 
Is then swung round and the hole dug. When 
the end Is replaced on Its peg the tree set In the 
hole should rest In the notch where the original 
stake did. 

The following table shows the number of 
trees required per acre at different distances for 
the square or rectangular method and for the 
hexagonal method. 

Sq. Hex. Sq, Hex. 

12X12 302 344 24x24 75 80 

12x15 242 ... 24x30 60 

15x15 193 224 30 X 30 48 56 

15x18 161 ... 30x36 40 

15x20 145 ••• 33x33 40 46 

15x30 96 ... 30x48 30 

18x18 134 156 30x60. 24 

18x20 121 ... 36x36.. 33 39 

20x20 108 124 40x40 27 31 

20 X 30 72 ... 40 X 50 21 

It will be noted that the hexagonal plan 
allows the setting of from four to forty trees 
more per acre than the square plan, even when 
the trees are set the same distance apart. This 
is the great advantage of this plan over the 
square. Filling an orchard one way, I. e., be- 
tween the permanent row. In one direction only, 
practically doubles the trees which can be set 
on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the 
number. 

42 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

Preparation of Soil. — The previous con- 
dition and treatment of a soil for an orchard 
are important. If the soil has been in a good 
rotation of field crops, including some culti- 
vated crops, it should be in prime condition 
for the trees. Old pastures and meadows 
should be plowed up, cropped, and cultivated 
for a year or two before setting to obtain the 
best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, 
however, this may be done after setting the 
trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by 
setting trees right among the stumps on recently 
cleared timberland. Where no stiff sod has 
formed the trees start quickly in the rich soil. 

The best immediate treatment of land pre- 
paratory to setting the trees should be such as 
to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing, 
thorough cultivation, and the application of 
liberal amounts of manure — twelve to fifteen 
loads per acre — are the most effective means 
of doing this. The best crop immediately to 
precede trees is clover. Sometimes an appli- 
cation of one thousand five hundred to two thou- 
sand pounds of lime will help to insure a stand 
of clover and at the same time improve the 
physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a 
good practice on the medium loams and more 

43i 



APPLE GROWING 

open soils, but on the heavy clays spring plow- 
ing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the 
fall these soils puddle and become hard to 
handle. Care should always be taken to keep 
the orchard well furrowed out as standing 
water is decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree 
growth. Tile draining is frequently advisable. 

Intercropping. — The question of inter- 
cropping a young orchard Is one to be carefully 
considered. As it Is often practiced it Is very In- 
jurious to the orchard, but it Is possible to man- 
age crops so as to be of very little harm to the 
trees. While the practice may be inadvisable 
In many commercial orchards, yet on a general 
farm we should by all means think that it was 
the right thing to do. Certain facts must be 
remembered, however, which have a bearing on 
the subject. 

Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. 
If we grow a crop between the tree rows we 
must remember that we are double cropping 
the land and that it must be fed and cared for 
accordingly. There Is absolutely no use in set- 
ting an apple orchard, expecting It to take care 
of itself, " just growing," like Topsy, as num- 
erous dilapidated and broken down orchards 
bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be 
44 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

cropped this must be judiciously done with the 
trees primarily in mind. 

The best crops to grow in a young apple 
orchard are those requiring cultivation, or 
which permit the cultivation of the land early 
in the season. Field beans, potatoes, and gar- 
den truck of all kinds, as small vegetables, 
melons, etc., are among the very best crops to 
grow in the young orchard. Corn will do if 
it does not shade the trees too much. Small 
grain and grass should not be used, especially 
where they come up close to the trees. These 
crops form too stiff a sod and use up too much 
moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or 
coarse manure will help to correct this condition 
somewhat when these crops must be used. 
After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat 
makes a satisfactory orchard crop in some 
cases. 

A regular rotation may be used In the young 
orchard to advantage when a space is left next 
the trees to receive cultivation. This space 
should be at least two feet on each side of the 
tree the first' year and should be widened each 
year as the tree grows older and larger, to four, 
six, and eight feet. This method has been used 
by the author very successfully for a number of 
45 



APPLE GROWING 

years. Some good rotations to use In a growing 
orchard are : ( i ) Wheat or rye one year, clover 
one year, beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats 
one year, clover one year, potatoes one year; 
(3) beans one year, rye plowed under In spring, 
followed by any cultivated crop one or two 
years. The essentials of a good rotation for an 
orchard are : A humus and fertility supplying 
crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow 
peas In the south, and at least two crops In four 
requiring cultivation up to the middle of the 
summer. 

Most of the points regarding the manage- 
ment of young trees have already been men- 
tioned, but a few others should have attention 
directed to them. Fall planted trees should 
not be cut back until spring. In the spring 
all newly planted trees should have their 
tops cut back rather severely to correspond 
with the Injury to the roots In transplant- 
ing, thus preserving the balance between 
root and top. This will usually be about half 
to two-thirds the previous season's growth. 
From three to five well distributed branches 
should be left with which to form the top. Dur- 
ing the first few years of their lives the young 
apple trees will need little or no pruning, except 

46 



PLANTING AND GROWING 

to shape them and remove crossing or inter- 
fering branches. 

Constant cultivation at frequent intervals 
until midsummer should be the rule with young 
growing trees, with which this is even more 
important than with older trees. It is a good 
plan to plow the orchard in fall where possible, 
always turning the furrows toward the trees, 
leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches 
between the rows. At Beechwood Farm we 
have always banked the trees with earth in the 
fall, using a shovel. This not only firms the 
soil about the tree, holding it straight and 
strong through the winter, but it affords good 
protection against rodents, especially mice. 
Where rabbits are prevalent it is well to place 
a fine mesh wire netting around the trees in 
addition to this. 



47 



CHAPTER IV 

PRUNING THE TREES 

PRUNING IS not an entirely artificial 
operation as one might at first thought 
suppose. It is one of nature's most com- 
mon processes. Nature accomplishes this re- 
sult through the principle of competition, by- 
starting many more trees on a given area than 
can possibly survive. In the same way there is 
a surplus of buds and branches on each indi- 
vidual tree. It is only by the crowding out and 
the perishing of many buds, branches, and trees 
that others are enabled to reach maturity and 
fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and 
too expensive a process for him, man accom- 
plishes in a day with the knife and saw what 
nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, 
and competition. Proper pruning is really an 
improvement on nature's method. 

Neither is it true, as some claim, that prun- 
ing is a devitalizing process. On the contrary 
it is often stimulating and may actually increase 

48 



PRUNING THE TREES 

the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All prac- 
tical experience teaches us that pruning is a 
reasonable, necessary, and advantageous pro- 
cess. True, it is often overdone, and improp- 
erly done. As in many other things, certain 
fundamental principles underlie and should 
govern practice. When these are known and 
observed, pruning becomes a more simple 
matter. 

Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter 
season stimulates the growth and tends to in- 
crease the production" of wood. In the same 
way pruning during the summer or growing 
season stimulates the growth and tends to in- 
duce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. 
But this fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense 
of the vigor of the tree. On the other hand, 
the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check 
the growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. 
As above noted heading back a tree when dor- 
mant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous 
growth. 

The habit of growth of a variety has much to 
do with Its pruning. Some varieties of apples 
are upright, others are spreading growers. 
Climate and locality greatly affect these habits 
of growth. So also the habit of a young tree 
49 



APPLE GROWING 

often differs from the habit of the same tree 
in old age. The tendency is for a tree to con- 
tinue its growth from its uppermost or terminal 
buds. Although the heading in of new growth 
checks this upward tendency and throws the 
energy of the tree into the development of 
lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the 
pruned tree soon resumes its natural upward 
growing habit. 

Plant food is taken up by the minute tree 
rootlets in solution and carried to the leaves 
where it is elaborated and then returned for 
use to the growing tissues of the tree. When- 
ever there is any obstruction above a bud the 
tendency is to throw the energy of the branch 
into a lateral bud, but if the obstruction is 
below the bud the branch merely thickens and 
growth is checked. When too heavy pruning 
is practiced the balance between the roots and 
top is disturbed. This usually results in what 
are commonly known as " suckers." These are 
caused by an abnormal condition and while they 
may be the result of disease or Injury to the 
tree, they are often of great value in restoring 
or readjusting the proper balance between the 
roots and top. 

Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit 
50 



PRUNING THE TREES 

and a good one. It may sometimes be used to 
influence the bearing year of trees like the Bald- 
win, which have an alternate bearing habit, 
but this is a more theoretical than practical 
method. Fruit bearing is determined more by 
the habitual performance of the tree than by 
any method of pruning, and this is especially 
true of old trees. It is easier to influence young 
trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy 
wood growth are unfavorable for the formation 
and development of fruit buds. A quiescent 
state is a better condition for this. 

Reasons for Pruning. — With these funda- 
mental principles in mind we may safely outline 
a method of pruning an apple tree. As the de- 
sired end Is different so will the method of prun- 
ing a young tree differ from that of an old one. 
There are five important things for which to 
prune a young tree, namely: 

1. To preserve a proper balance between the 
top and root at the time of setting out. This 
usually means cutting off the broken and the 
very long roots to a reasonable length and cut- 
ting back from one-half to two-thirds of the 
growth of the previous season. 

2. To make the top open In order to admit 
the sunlight freely. In the humid climate of the 

51 



APPLE GROWING 

Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to 
prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. 
This is necessary in order properly to color and 
mature the fruit. 

3. To regulate the number of limbs compos- 
ing the top. Probably three branches well dis- 
tributed on the trunk would make most nearly 
the ideal head, but as these cannot always be 
obtained the best practice is to leave from three 
to five branches from which to form the top. 

4. To fix the branches at the proper height 
from the ground. This is more or less a matter 
of opinion, some growers preferring a low and 
others a high head. The character of the tree 
growth, the method of culture, and the purpose 
of the tree whether temporary or permanent 
greatly influence the height of the head. An 
upright growing variety should be headed lower 
than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or 
under extensive methods can well be headed 
lower than those under more intensive culture 
where it is desirable to carry on cultural opera- 
tions close around them. Permanent trees 
should be headed higher than temporary trees. 
Apple trees should seldom be headed lower 
than a foot from the ground, nor more than 
four feet above it. For upright growing varie- 

52 



PRUNING THE TREES 

ties Intended as permanents, the writer prefers 
three to three and one-half feet and for more 
spreading varieties four feet; while for tem- 
porary trees eighteen Inches should be a good 
height. 

5. To do away with weak crotches and to 
remove crossing or interfering branches. A 
crotch formed by two branches of equal size, 
especially when the split is deep, is a weak 
crotch and should be avoided. Strong crotches 
are formed by forcing the development of 
lateral buds and making almost a right angle 
branch from the parent one. All branches 
which rub each other, which tend to occupy the 
same space with another, or which generally 
seem out of place, are better removed as soon 
as any of these tendencies are found to 
exist. 

Ideals in Pruning. — The general method 
of pruning the old trees and the ideal in mind 
for it will also influence the pruning of the 
young tree, especially the shaping of it. Once 
determined upon, the Ideal should be consist- 
ently followed out in the pruning of the tree as 
it becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing 
age it will be necessary to prune somewhat 
53 



APPLE GROWING 

differently and for other purposes. These we 
can conveniently consider under six heads : 

1. Every tree should be pruned with a defi- 
nite ideal as to size, shape, and degree of open- 
ness in mind. To have such an ideal is very 
important. It is only by industriously and 
consistently carrying it out that the ideal tree 
in these respects can be ever obtained. Hap- 
hazard cutting and sawing without a definite 
purpose in mind are really worse than no prun- 
ing at all. 

2. It almost goes without saying that to re- 
move all dead, diseased, or injured wood is 
a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured 
branches open the way for rot and decay of 
contiguous branches, and disease spreads 
through the tree. The removal of all such 
branches is as essential to the health of the tree 
as it is to its good appearance. In removing 
them the cut should be made well behind the 
diseased or injured part to insure the checking 
of rot and disease. 

3. All mature apple trees should be so 
pruned as to keep* them in the most easily man- 
ageable shape and to facilitate in every pos- 
sible way the operations of tillage, spraying, 

54 



PRUNING THE TREES 

and harvesting. It Is most Important to have 
the tree low enough down so that spraying and 
picking can be easily done. It Is difficult to 
spray properly a tree which Is more than 
twenty-five feet in height. Even this height 
necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the 
use of an extension pole. An apple tree should 
be so pruned that all the fruit can be readily 
picked from ladders not longer than eighteen 
to twenty-two feet. 

Of course, If the tree has been allowed to 
get higher than this under previous manage- 
ment, sometimes we have to make the best of 
a bad situation. If the trees are too high head 
them back by cutting off the leaders, but it is 
not always wise to lower all trees to twenty- 
two feet. Heading back of old trees will be 
more fully discussed In the chapter on " Reno- 
vating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than 
twenty-two feet are heavy and clumsy to 
handle. 

If cultivation Is to be carried on close up 
under the tree the lower limbs must be pruned 
so as to allow this. It is not necessary, how- 
ever, to drive a team closer than twelve or 
fifteen feet from a mature tree, contrary to the 
common belief and practice. Cultivation Is 
S5 



APPLE GROWING 

least important in the first few feet of space 
around a mature tree. By the use of set-over 
tools, all that Is necessary can be well cultivated 
without crowding the team under or against the 
branches. 

4. As has been pointed out In the discussion 
of the pruning of young trees, In humid regions 
where the sunlight Is none too abundant 
through the growing season, the open head Is 
most desirable. Sunlight on the leaves as well 
as on the fruit Is essential to good color of 
the fruit, and good color Is a very Important 
factor In the flavor and attractive appearance of 
the fruit. An open center with upright grow- 
ing leaders removed gives the greatest oppor- 
tunity for sunlight to penetrate through the 
tree. 

5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant 
season tends to Increase the vigor of the tree. 
Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal 
and vigorous wood growth, which is most es- 
sential to a healthy fruit-bearing tree. On the 
other hand, such pruning may be excessive and 
produce wood growth at the expense of fruit 
buds, throwing the tree out of bearing. 

6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is 
to regulate the number and distribution of the 

S6 



PRUNING THE TREES 

wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper 
balance between these is greatly affected by 
pruning and can be best regulated by experience 
with the particular tree or variety. A perfect 
balance is hard to get, but with study and skill 
it can be closely approximated. Pruning, too, 
may thin the fruit, as removing branches re- 
moves fruit buds. This is best done by remov- 
ing small branches near the ends of larger ones. 
It is a much cheaper method of thinning than 
picking off individual fruits, but not as effective. 

Time of Pruning. — The particular time of 
the year for pruning is not vital. As be- 
tween summer and winter pruning, winter 
is to be preferred because of the physical 
effect on the tree. Summer pruning is an 
unnatural process and should only be prac- 
ticed as a last resort to check growth or 
induce frultfulness, as It may result In In- 
jury to the tree. It is essential that a 
tree mature its foliage, which It frequently does 
not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, 
or injured wood should be removed when first 
observed, summer or winter. 

Spring Is the logical and usually the most 
convenient time to prune on the general farm. 
While dormant season pruning may be done 
57 



APPLE GROWING 

at any time between November ist and June 
1st, the cuts heal more rapidly In the spring 
when the sap begins to flow. In regions sub- 
ject to severe and drying winds In the winter, 
pruning should be deferred at least to late win- 
ter. Considered from every standpoint, 
March and April are quite the best months 
In which to prune. After the removal of use- 
less branches, the normal amount of food mate- 
rial Is delivered to fewer buds under greater 
sap pressure and the remaining buds are made 
more strong and vigorous. 

In removing small branches with a knife or 
other cutting tool, the cut should be made up- 
ward from below and opposite a bud. On up- 
right growing varieties the last bud left should 
be an outside one to Induce the tree to spread 
as much as possible, while on spreading trees 
leaving as the last bud an Inside one has a 
tendency to make the tree grow more upright. 
Always cut close to the parent branch, never 
leaving a stub no matter how young or old the 
tree. 

Cuts of lateral branches should be made just 
at the shoulder of the branch where It joins 
the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will 
not heal, neither will one too far ahead of It. A 

58 



PRUNING THE TREES 

stub left on a trunk or large branch does not 
heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where the 
heartwood is exposed. This gradually works 
back into the main branch and the tree finally 
becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is 
needed to complete the destruction Is a heavy 
wind, an ice or a snow storm, or a heavy load 
of fruit. 

All wounds more than two inches in diame- 
ter should be painted either with a heavy lead 
paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar 
preparation. These things do not in them- 
selves heal a cut, but they keep out the decaying 
elements, air and moisture, thus helping to 
preserve the branch and by protecting it to 
promote healing in nature's way. A little lamp 
black will serve to deaden the color of the paint. 

Pruning Tools. — The. best tool to use In 
pruning is one which brings you nearest to your 
work and over which you have the greatest con- 
trol to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's 
experience no tool does this so smoothly and 
conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A 
good saw should be quite rigid, rather heavy at 
the butt, where its depth should be about six 
Inches, tapering down to about two Inches at 
the point. It should have a full, firm grip, be 

59 



APPLE GROWING 

not more than thirty inches long, and should 
always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should 
not be used because of the Injury done to the 
tree when sawing in crotches. 

Cutting shears are often very useful, espe- 
cially the smaller, one-handed type which is al- 
most indispensable in pruning young trees. 
The larger, two-handled shears are useful in 
thinning out the ends of branches or in head- 
ing back new growth. They should not be too 
heavy, as they are tiresome to use. The ex- 
tension handled types are too cumbersome, too 
slow to work with, and the operator is of neces- 
sity too far away from his work for the best 
results. 

Fruit Thinning. — A matter which is quite 
nearly related to pruning is thinning the fruit, 
and may properly be treated here. That this 
is not as common a practice with most fruit- 
growers as it should be, the great lack of uni- 
formity in our ordinary market apples is ample 
evidence. Many persons will at once raise the 
question as to whether or not it is practicable 
to thin the fruit on large apple trees. The 
answer is that many growers find it not only 
practicable, but most profitable to do so. 
Wherever fruit of a uniform size and color 
60 



PRUNING THE TREES 

Is desired, thinning Is a practical necessity, espe- 
cially when the crop of fruit Is heavy. 

The proper time to thin the fruit Is just 
after what Is commonly known as the " June 
drop," i. e.y the falling off of those fruits not 
well enough pollinated or set to hold on to 
maturity. In thinning the fruit should be 
taken off until they are not closer than from 
four to six inches apart on the same branch, 
although the distance apart on any branch will 
depend somewhat on the amount of the crop 
on other parts of the tree. Never leave clus- 
ters of fruit on any branches, as some of them 
are sure to be small and out of shape. Further- 
more two apples lying together afford a fine 
place for worms to get from one apple to 
another and they seldom fail to Improve the 
opportunity. Step ladders and ordinary rung 
ladders are used to get at the fruit for thin- 
ning. The cost of the operation Is not nearly 
as large as might appear at first thought and 
In practically all cases Is a paying Investment. 



6i 



CHAPTER V 

CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING 

IN Its broad sense cultivation Is the treat- 
ment of the soil. Thus understood or- 
chard cultivation Includes the sod mulch 
system as well as the stirring of the soil with 
various implements. In its more common and 
restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the 
stirring of the soil about plants to encourage 
growth and productivity. To have the apple 
tree in sod was once the commonly accepted 
method of orchard treatment — a method of 
neglect and of '' letting well enough alone." 
With the advent of more scientific apple culture 
the stirring of the soil has come to be the more 
popular method. But within the last few years 
an Improved modification of the old sod 
method, known as the sod " mulch " system, has 
attracted much attention because of the success 
with which a few men have practiced It. For 
a correct understanding of these practices and 
62 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

of the relative desirability of these systems 
we must again turn to underlying principles and 
purposes. 

It may be said on first thought that tillage 
is a practice contrary to nature. But it ac- 
complishes what nature does in another way. 
Tillage has been practiced on other crops than 
trees for so long that we think of it almost 
as a custom. There are, however, scientific 
and practical reasons for tillage. 

The Effects of Tillage on the soil are 
three fold, physical, chemical, and increasing of 
water holding capacity. Tillage affects the soil 
physically by fining and deepening it, thus in- 
creasing the feeding area of roots, and by bring- 
ing about the more free admission of air warms 
and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of 
temperature and moisture. Chemical activ- 
ities are augmented by tillage in setting free 
plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening 
the decomposition of organic matter, and the 
extending of these agencies to greater depth. 
Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the 
water holding capacity of the soil and by check- 
ing evaporation. 

Of all these things which tillage accomplishes 
in a soil, two should be especially emphasized 
63 



APPLE GROWING 

for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture and 
soil texture. That moisture is a very important 
consideration in the apple orchard the effects 
of our frequent droughts are ample evidence. 
The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States 
when it is properly distributed is fully sufficient 
for the needs of an apple tree. By enlarging 
the reservoir or water holding capacity of the 
soil and by preventing the loss of water by 
evaporation, an excess of rainfall in the spring 
may be held for later distribution and use. 

As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil 
texture is as effective as the supplying of plant 
food and much cheaper. The latter is of no 
consequence unless the plant can use it. Scien- 
tists tell us that there is an abundance of plant 
food in most soils. The problem is to make 
it available. Plant food must be in solution 
and in the form of a film moisture surrounding 
the smallest soil particles in order to be avail- 
able to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. 
Good tillage supplies these conditions. Can 
they be obtained equally well in another way? 

It is claimed by the advocates of the sod 
mulch system of orchard culture that it also 
supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed 
vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or 

64 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

other mulch decaying in the soil increases its 
humous content and hence its water holding ca- 
pacity. By forming a mulch over the soil evap- 
oration may be checked to some extent, al- 
though probably not as effectively in a practical 
way, as by cultivation. If there is a good grass 
sod in the orchard, moisture and plant food 
made available by that moisture are utilized, 
and if the grass is allowed to go back into the 
soil it continues to furnish these elements to the 
tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of mois- 
ture from the surface of the leaves of grass. 
In fact, grass may well serve to remove an 
excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet 
lands. 

Laying aside theoretical considerations, let 
us see what practical experience teaches on this 
subject. We have the accurate data on a large 
number of western New York orchards show- 
ing the results of cultivation and other methods 
of soil management. These data are overwhelm- 
ingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne 
County the average yield of orchards tilled for 
^VQ years or more was 271 bushels per acre, 
as compared with 200 bushels per acre for 
those in sod five years or more but otherwise 
well cared for, — an increase of thirty=five per 

65 



APPLE GROWING 

cent, in favor of good tillage. In Orleans 
County, under the same conditions, the increase 
in yield due to cultivation was forty-five per 
cent, and in Niagara County it was twenty-two 
per cent. Records were made on hundreds 
of orchards and the results should be given 
great weight in determining the system to be 
practiced, as intelligent consideration of trust- 
worthy records is to be encouraged. 

These results v/ere obtained in one region 
under its conditions and it is quite possible, 
although not probable, that other conditions 
might give different results. There are, how- 
ever, special conditions as will be pointed out 
later, under which the sod mulch method might 
be more advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, 
makes a cleaner cover for the drop fruit, avoids 
the damage from tillage implements to which 
tilled trees are liable, and can be practiced on 
lands too steep to till. It often happens, too, 
that it fits into the scheme of management on 
a general farm better than the more intensive 
and specialized system of cultivation. And it 
must be remembered that we are dealing with 
this question from the point of view of the home 
farm rather than of the commercial orchardist. 
So that where the sod mulch gives equally good 
66 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

results it would be- preferred under these condi- 
tions. 

Late Fall and Early Spring Plowing.— 
The common tillage practice in the sections 
where it is most followed is to plow either in 
late fall or as early as possible in the spring. 
Whether fall or spring plowing is best depends 
on two things: the character of the soil and 
convenience. On heavy clay soils where drain- 
age is poor it is not advisable to plow in the 
fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to bake 
when it dries, making it hard to handle. On 
gravel loams, medium loams, and all well 
drained soils which are fairly open in texture 
either fall or spring plowing is practiced de- 
pending on which period affords the most time. 

On the general farm where there are several 
crops for which the land must be prepared in 
spring, it would seem best to get as much of 
the plowing as possible done in the fall. But 
a large crop of apples or a large and late corn 
husking or potato digging may interfere with 
this on some farms and make spring plowing 
more desirable. Always plan this work In con- 
nection with the other farm work so as to 
give the best distribution of labor. 

After fall plowing either the spring-tooth 

67 



APPLE GROWING 

harrow or the disk harrow is best to use to 
work up the soil and no time should be lost 
in getting at this as soon as the land is dry- 
enough in the spring. Sometimes the disk har- 
row can be used to work up the soil in the 
orchard in the spring without any plowing at 
all, especially on loose loams where there are 
few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk 
cuts too deep and there is too great danger of 
injuring the roots. On spring plowed land the 
spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best re- 
sults. After the soil is thoroughly fined and 
worked into a mellow bed and as soon as the 
period of excessive moisture in spring is passed, 
a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow 
or a light shallow digging cultivator should be 
used to stir the surface of the soil only. 

The growing period for an apple tree begins 
as early as growth starts in the spring and 
continues up to about midsummer. If culti- 
vation is to stimulate growth as much as pos- 
sible, it should be done during this period. The 
first object of cultivation in the early spring 
is to loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, 
which is usually too wet at that time. As culti- 
vation is continued the soil will become fined 
and firmed again by the time drier weather 
68 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

comes on. A fairly deep digging and lump 
crushing tool is the best implement to use up 
to this time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow 
meets these requirements. 

After this period is passed and during drier 
weather, cultivation is carried on for a different 
purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by mak- 
ing a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. 
This Is best accomplished by shallow-going im- 
plements of which the spike-tooth harrow, the 
acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are 
best. As the season and the amount of rain- 
fall vary, so must tillage operations be varied. 
In an early dry season begin with the lighter 
implements earlier. In a late wet season keep 
the digging tools at work later. As soon as the 
soil is in good physical condition the principal 
object of tillage is to modify moisture con- 
ditions. 

As a matter of practice three to four harrow- 
Ings at Intervals of a week to ten days are 
necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less 
are required, according to the character and 
condition of the soil and the season. The later 
moisture-conserving tillage should also be car- 
ried on every week or ten days, according to 
weather conditions. It is good practice to stir 

69 



APPLE GROWING 

the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy 
rain. Use the smoothing tools after light to 
medium rains and the heavier tools after pack- 
ing or beating rains. In practice from five to 
eight or ten of these cultivations are necessary. 
The drier the season the more necessary does 
frequent cultivation become. 

A Cover Crop is so closely associated with 
tillage that it is usually considered a part of the 
system. It should be sown in midsummer as 
soon as tillage ceases. This time will vary from 
July first to August fifteenth, depending on the 
locality, the rainfall, the crop of fruit on the 
trees, and on how favorable the conditions for 
securing a good stand of the cover crop are. 
The farther south the locality, or the earlier 
the fruit, the sooner the crop should be sown. 
Absence of sufiicient rainfall necessitates a con- 
tinuation of the cultivation, both because it is 
necessary to conserve all the moisture possible 
and because it is difiicult to get a good stand of 
a cover crop — especially of one having small 
seeds — at a dry time in midsummer. 

In a year when there is a full crop of fruit 

on the trees cultivation should be continued as 

late as possible as all the stimulus that can thus 

be secured will be necessary to help the fruit 

70 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

attain good size and maturity, and at the same 
time enable the tree properly to mature its 
fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On 
the other hand, in a year when there is not a full 
crop of fruit cultivation should be stopped early 
so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of 
wood and foliage and continuing the growth of 
the next season's buds so late that they may not 
mature and therefore may be in danger of win- 
ter killing. 

The different kinds of cover crops which may 
be used in the apple orchard will be considered 
In the next chapter as they are so closely asso- 
ciated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, 
however, a cover crop is used principally to 
secure Its mulching and physical effects on the 
soil in the Intervals between the seasons of till- 
age. In addition to its physical and feeding 
effects the cover crop serves to check the growth 
of trees in the latter part of the season by taking 
up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, 
thus helping to ripen the wood. 

Sod Mulch. — The ordinary sod culture 
which is practiced In so many orchards should 
not be confused with the sod mulch system. 
The one Is a system of neglect, the other of 
Intention. In the sod mulch system the grass 

71 



APPLE GROWING 

sod Is stimulated and encouraged and when the 
grass dies or is cut, it is left on the ground 
to decay, forming a soil mulch meanwhile. The 
removal of grass from the orchard as hay is 
poor practice and should be discouraged. The 
grass mulch may well be supplemented by the 
addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse 
manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes 
this mulch is put on to the depth of six inches 
or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced 
it is very effective in conserving moisture and 
In adding the humus which is so necessary to 
the soil. 

Sod and tillage have somewhat different 
effects on the tree and on the fruit. Let us 
see what these effects are. It is common knowl- 
edge that fruit is more highly colored when 
grown in sod than when grown under a tillage 
system. This is probably largely due to the 
fact that tillage keeps the fruit growing so late 
that it does not mature so well or so early. 
Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in 
tilled than in sod orchards. It has been shown 
that fruit grown under tillage keeps from two 
to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. 
It is claimed also — but this is a disputed point 
— that tilled fruit has a better quality and 
72 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown In sod 
is drier and less crisp and juicy. 

The effect of tillage on the trees is more 
marked and better known. Tilled trees have 
a darker, richer green foliage, Indicating a bet- 
ter and more vigorous health. The leaves are 
also larger and more numerous. They come 
out three or four days earlier in the spring and 
stay on the trees two weeks later In the fall than 
the leaves on trees kept In sod. Tilled trees 
make nearly twice the growth In a season that 
those in sod do, In fact there is danger of their 
making wood grov/th at the expense of fruit 
buds. Tillage also gives a deeper, better dis- 
tributed root system. 

Despite the advantages and the disadvan- 
tages of each system, there are times, places, 
and circumstances under which one Is more ad- 
visable than the other. On lands rich In humus 
and in plant food and level so as to be easily 
tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best 
system. But It should be practiced In connection 
with cover crops, and the orchard should be 
given occasional periods of rest In sod — say 
one year in from three to five. 

The sod mulch system of orchard culture 
Is probably better adapted to rather wet good 
73 



APPLE GROWING 

grass land and where mulching material Is 
cheap and readily available. It Is undoubtedly 
at its best on lands too steep or rough to till, 
or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage 
Is the more Intensive method and where labor 
Is scarce and high sod culture might be more 
advisable for this reason, other conditions being 
not too unfavorable. 

In order to Illustrate a method of manage- 
ment under the tillage system we may suggest 
the following as a good one for level to gently 
rolling land: 

19 1 2. Early plowing In spring, cultivation to 

July first to fifteenth. Then sow red 
clover as a cover crop. 

19 13. Repeat previous year's treatment, 
varying the time of sowing cover crop 
according to conditions. 

19 14. Let the clover grow, mowing and 
leaving on the ground as a mulch, June 
fifteenth to twentieth, and again in 
August. 

19 15. Plow early In spring, cultivate to mid- 
summer, and then sow rye or buck- 
wheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to 
August fifteenth. 

74 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

19 1 6. Repeat 19 15 treatment and if trees 
are not growing too fast, sow clover 
or hairy vetch as a cover crop. 

19 17. Same as 1912, etc. 

Pasturing the Orchard.— The sod mulch 
system explains itself and does not need illus- 
tration. Sod orchards are often managed as 
pasture for animals, however, and this practice 
should be discussed. An orchard is considered 
as pastured when a considerable number of ani- 
mals are turned into it for a greater or less por- 
tion of the year. Results in orchards where 
pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show 
that it is never advisable to pasture an orchard 
with horses or cattle, but that fairly good re- 
sults may be expected where sheep or hogs 
are used. 

The evidence of yield of fruit and appear- 
ance of trees both indicate that pasturing an 
orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst 
possible practice. These animals rub against 
the trees, break the branches, browse the limbs 
and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high as 
they can reach. All experience is against this 
practice which cannot be too strongly depre- 
cated. 

75 



APPLE GROJVING 

Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although 
a somewhat doubtful practice, often gives good 
results. Sheep crop the grass close to the 
ground and to some extent prevent the exten- 
sive evaporation which usually takes place from 
the leaves of grass. Their well distributed 
manure is worth considerable. They also 
browse the branches to some extent and should 
not be allowed to run in the orchard late in 
the season as they will destroy considerable 
fruit. 

Pasturing an orchard with swine gives bet- 
ter results than any other pasture treatment 
of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting 
which prevents the formation of a stiff sod and 
itself may often amount almost to cultivation 
in well stocked orchards. A good deal of man- 
ure is added to the soil, especially when the 
hogs are fed outside the orchard. Hogs also 
destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit. 

Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. 
It gives a double utilization of the land. It is 
a cheap method of management. When the 
animals are fed outside the orchard, as should 
always be the case, it adds considerable plant 
food to the soil. When plenty of outside food 
can be given and when the orchard is not over- 
76 



CULTIVATING AND CROPPING 

stocked — the animals should never be hungry 
— hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in 
pasturing orchards. In very rough fields in- 
capable of tillage, this is undoubtedly the very 
best system of orchard management. 

Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing 
young trees to injury from the animals, but 
this may be at least partly avoided by pro- 
tecting them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed 
screen. Hogs especially soil the fruit and make 
the land rough and difficult to drive over. Un- 
der the proper conditions pasturage may be 
practiced to advantage, especially on small 
areas and on the general farm where it Is 
more advantageous than it would be commer- 
cially. 



77 




CHAPTER VI 

MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

OVER CROPS may be said to be supple- 
mentary to tillage. In the previous 
chapter this function has been discussed. 
It now remains to point out another important 
function — that of a green manure crop add- 
ing humus and plant food to the soil. Not only 
do some cover crops add plant food and all 
humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve 
these by preventing leaching, especially of ni- 
trates, and they help to render plant food more 
available by reworking it and leaving it in a 
form more available for the tree. They some- 
times act as a protection against winter injury 
by holding snow and by their own bulk. They 
also help to dry out the soil in spring, thus 
making the land tillable earlier. 

There are two great classes of cover or green 
manure crops, leguminous and non-leguminous. 
A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and 

78 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

improves the physical condition of the soil. In 
itself it adds no plant food, although it may 
take up, utilize, and leave behind plant food 
in a more available form for the tree's use. 
But in addition to these benefits, leguminous 
crops actually add to the soil plant food in the 
form of nitrogen which they have the ability 
to assimilate from the air by means of bacterial 
organisms on their roots. 

Non-Leguminous Crops.— The most im- 
portant of the non-leguminous crops are rye, 
buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, oats, and 
millet. The first mentioned are the most com- 
monly used. Also in order of importance the 
following are the usual leguminous cover and 
green manure crops to be used: clovers, winter 
vetch, soy beans, alfalfa, cow peas (first in the 
South). In order to determine the relative ad- 
visability of the use of these various crops let 
us now look at some of their characteristics 
and requirements. 

Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover 
crops, especially in the young orchard, as it 
does not grow as well in shade as in the open. 
A particularly strong point about rye is that 
it grows rapidly quite late in the fall and starts 
early in the spring. Starting earlier than most 

79 



APPLE GROWING 

crops In the spring, it makes a considerable 
amount of growth before the land Is fit to plow. 
Especially In warmer climates rye should not 
be sown too early In the fall — not usually be- 
fore September ist — because of this too heavy 
growth. Rye is also adapted to a great variety 
of soils and hence will often grow where other 
crops will not do well. About two bushels of 
seed are required per acre. 

Buckwheat is probably about equally as good 
as rye for an orchard cover crop, although It 
does not produce quite as much organic matter. 
It will germinate at almost any season of the 
year even If it Is very dry. It Is a great soil im- 
prover because of Its ability to feed and thrive 
on soils too poor for other crops, due to Its 
numerous shallow feeding rootlets. It grows 
rapidly and covers the ground well, but like 
rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buck- 
wheat should not be used to excess on the 
heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on the 
land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a 
good seeding. 

Turnips or rape often make good pioneer 

cover or green manure crops. They are great 

soil improvement crops and it Is comparatively 

easy to secure a good stand of them even in 

80 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

dry weather. Sown In late July in the North 
they will produce a great bulk of humus and 
add much moisture to the soil, especially if they 
cover the ground well. Their broad, abundant 
leaves and high tops also hold the snow well 
In winter. Cow Horn Is the best variety of 
turnips to use, as It Is a large, rank grower. 
Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. 
Rape makes an excellent pasture crop In an 
orchard both for sheep and hogs, but especially 
for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed 
are necessary to the acre. 

Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops 
as the foregoing, because, with the possible ex- 
ception of millet, they make their best growth 
early In the season. Moreover they take up 
too much moisture from the soil at a time when 
the tree most needs this moisture. In fact they 
are sometimes used for this specific purpose on 
wet land In too wet seasons. Two to two and 
one half bushels of oats or barley and one to 
one and one half bushels of millet to the acre 
are necessary for a good seeding. 

Although weeds can hardly be classified as 

cover crops, they are often valuable ones. They 

grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk 

of humus, without the expense of seeding. If 

8 1 



APPLE GROWING 

they are not allowed to go to seed so as to 
scatter the seed about the farm, they often 
make the best of cover crops. This necessitates 
a mowing in September. Weeds are plants out 
of place, and when these plants are in place 
they are not necessarily weeds, as they have 
then become serviceable. 

Legumes. — In general, legumes are more 
valuable as cover and green manure crops than 
non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they 
are more rank growers and more deeply rooted, 
as well as because they add nitrogen to the 
soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure 
a good stand of most legumes than it is of the 
crops previously mentioned for several reasons. 
As a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed 
usually has greater germinating power than a 
small one. This often means much at the time 
of the year when the cover crop is sown. Then 
legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring 
better soil conditions. Still these should be 
present In good orchard soils. Drainage must 
be good, the soil must be at least average in 
fertility and physical condition, it must be sour 
— hence it is often necessary to use lime — and 
soils frequently require Inoculation before they 
will grow legumes satisfactorily. 
82 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

Where the clovers grow well they make ex- 
cellent cover crops as well as green manure 
crops. The chief difficulty with them is that 
of obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. 
The mammoth red and the medium red clovers 
are probably the best of their genus on the 
heavier soils, while crimson clover is best on 
sandy soils and where it will grow, on the 
lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially 
well adapted to building up run down sandy 
soils. Although it is somewhat easier to secure 
a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank 
enough to make a good cover or green manure 
crop. Most clovers are deep rooted plants 
and therefore great soil improvers physically 
as well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The 
amounts of seed required per acre for the differ- 
ent kinds are about as follows : mammoth fif- 
teen to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to 
fifteen pounds; crimson twelve to fifteen 
pounds ; and alsike ten to twelve pounds. 

Where It can be readily and successfully 
grown alfalfa is really a better cover and 
green manure crop than the clovers. It 
is deeper rooted, makes a better top growth, 
and therefore adds more nitrogen and more 
humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot 

83 



APPLE GROWING 

be recommended for common use, however, 
as It is so difficult to grow except under favor- 
able conditions. It requires a more fertile soil 
than clover, a soil with little or no acidity, good 
drainage, and usually the soil must be Inocu- 
lated. Only where these conditions prevail can 
alfalfa be generally recommended. 

Vetch Is an excellent cover and green manure 
crop, forming a thick, close mat of herbage 
which makes a good cover for the soil. It Is 
very quick to start growing and a rapid grower 
In the spring. It also adds larger quantities 
of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives 
through the hard freezing winters. Summer 
vetch, although an equally good grower, Is 
killed by freezing. One bushel of seed Is re- 
quired per acre and the seed Is expensive, which 
Is the greatest objection to the use of this ex- 
cellent crop. 

Two other less well known and used legum- 
inous crops are well worth trial as cover crops 
— soy beans In the North and cow peas in the 
South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and 
as they are rank and rapid growers add large 
quantities of humus to the soil. Under favor- 
able conditions they will cover the ground with 
a perfect mat of vegetation in a very short time. 

84 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

Being larger seeded, It Is considerably easier 
to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry sea- 
sons than It is of the smaller seeded clovers. 
It Is usually best to sow In drills the ordinary 
width, seven Inches, apart. 

Cow peas are universally used as a cover and 
green manure crop In the South, but they do 
not thrive so well in the North. One and one 
half to two bushels of seed are required per 
acre. In the North the earlier maturing varie- 
ties of soy beans are almost equally good. One 
to one and one half bushels of seed are sown 
per acre. 

Leguminous cover crops are also the best and 
the cheapest source of nitrogen for the apple 
orchard, after they are well established. Their 
use may be overdone, however. Too much 
nitrogen results in a growth of wood at the ex- 
pense of fruit buds. To avoid this It Is often 
advisable to use non-leguminous and leguminous 
crops alternately, when the orchard Is making 
a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these 
two kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover 
for example, may be combined with good re- 
sults. When this Is done one half the usual 
amount of seed of each should be used. 

Early Plowing. — Many people make the 

85 



APPLE GROWING 

common mistake of thinking that a green man- 
ure crop must be allowed to grow until late 
In June in order to secure the maximum amount 
of growth. There are several reasons why this 
IS not good practice. In the first place culti- 
vation Is most essential in the early spring as 
has been pointed out. Then moisture Is better 
conserved by plowing under the crop early and 
a better physical condition of the soil secured. 
Plowing early In the spring warms up the soil 
and sets plants to work more quickly. Lastly, 
material rots much more quickly in the early 
spring when moisture is more abundant, which 
is very Important. 

An apple tree Is as much a crop as anything 
grown on the farm and must be so regarded 
by those who would become successful orchard- 
ists. When It Is not properly fed and cared for, 
good yields of fruit may not justly be expected. 
Especially Is this true of an orchard which Is 
being intercropped. But because of the fact 
that an apple tree is not an annual crop but the 
product of many years' growth, because Its root 
system Is deeper and more widely spread out 
than those of other crops, and because the 
amount of plant food removed In a crop of 
fruit is comparatively small, fertilization Is less 
86 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

Important than many persons would have us 
think. It Is a fact that where orchards receive 
good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus 
commercial fertilizers give but medium results. 

Elements of Fertility. — Three elements 
are necessary for the growth of apple trees, 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To 
these lime may be added, although Its benefit 
Is indirect rather than direct as a plant food. 
How badly any of these elements may be needed 
depends on the soil, its previous treatment, and 
on the system of management. By learning 
what are the effects of these elements on the 
tree and fruit we may determine under what 
conditions, if any, their use is advisable. 

Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood 
and leaves, giving the latter a dark green color. 
In fact the color of the leaves and the amount 
of the wood growth are usually good indicators 
of the need of nitrogen. Nitrogen In excess 
develops over vigorous growth and prevents 
the maturity of wood and buds. It always has 
a tendency to delay the maturity of the fruit by 
keeping it growing late. On many varieties it 
tends to produce poorly colored fruits. 

When trees are making a normal amount of 
growth in a year — say a foot to three feet or 

87 



APPLE GROWING 

more — and when the leaves are of good size 
and a dark green in color, there is little need 
of nitrogen. But when trees are not growing 
satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow 
color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On 
early soils and in long growing seasons nitrogen 
may be more freely and safely used than under 
other conditions. 

The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on 
the tree and fruit is much more uncertain. They 
are supposed to influence the quality and the 
flavor of the fruit, giving better color and 
flavor, and this they undoubtedly do to some 
extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a 
darker green color. The precise effect of these 
two elements is at prsent a subject of much 
discussion, one set of investigators maintaining 
after a long and careful investigation that these 
effects are too small to be worth while, and the 
other claiming that they have a marked effect 
in the ways above indicated. The only safe 
guide is the actual local result. If the fruit is 
satisfactory in every way it will be of little use 
to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is 
not, then it will pay to experiment with them. 
The needs of and the results on different soils 
are so variable that it is always wise to experi- 
88 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

ment on a small scale before using fertilizers 
extensively. 

Stable Manure. — The necessary plant 
food Is best supplied by stable manure applied 
at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light 
application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy 
application. This amounts to a load for from 
two to five mature trees. Such an application 
will not only go far toward supplying the neces- 
sary nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but 
especially If coarse will add considerable humus 
and Improve the physical condition of the soil. 

Except on land which washes badly, manure 
should be applied In the fall and winter. It 
should not be piled near the trunk of the tree 
but spread uniformly over the entire surface of 
the ground. It Is particularly Important to 
spread the manure under and beyond the far- 
thest extent of the branches as this Is the most 
important feeding root area of the tree. 

Commercial Fertilizers. — Where manure 
Is not available or where it cannot be applied 
Insufficient amounts, commercial fertilizers may 
be resorted to, after they have been experiment- 
ally tested out. Leguminous cover crops 
are the best source of nitrogen^ as has been 
indicated, but where these do not grow well, 

89 



APPLE GROWING 

or In seasons when they have for some reason 
failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood are good 
substitutes. From two hundred to three hun- 
dred pounds of one or the other of these may 
be applied broadcast In the spring soon after 
growth Is well started and all danger of Its be- 
ing checked by frost or cold weather Is past. 
It Is well to apply the nitrate of soda In two 
applications a few weeks apart, especially on 
soils which are leachy and In wet seasons, as 
part of the nitrogen may leach away If all Is 
applied at once. These should be thoroughly 
worked Into the soil with a spring-tooth harrow. 
To supply the other two elements, from two 
hundred to four hundred pounds of treated 
rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric 
acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash 
for the potash, should be applied at any time 
In the early part of the season, preferably 
just before a light rain, and worked Into the soil 
as before. Home-made wood ashes are a good 
source of both these elements, and especially of 
the potash. They cannot be purchased econo- 
mically In any quantity, but on the general farm 
there could be no better way to utilize the wood 
ashes made around the place than by applying 
them two or three bushels to a full grown tree 
90 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

every year or two. Wood ashes are also a 
good source of lime, being about one-third 
calcium oxide. Thus a large amount of avail- 
able plant food will be supplied to the tree, and 
where It Is needed should result not only In bet- 
ter wood growth but In the formation of vigor- 
ous leaf and fruit buds for the following year. 
Lime Is not usually considered as a fertilizer 
except on soils actually deficient In It. But 
It win usually be advisable to apply from 
one thousand five hundred to two thousand 
pounds of fresh burned lime or Its equiv- 
alent, In order to correct any natural soil acid- 
ity, to hasten the decay of organic material, to 
Increase the activity of the soil bacteria, and 
to Improve the physical condition of the soil 
by floculating the soil particles and helping to 
break up lumpy soils. Lime also helps to 
liberate plant food by recomblning It with cer- 
tain other elements In the soil. All these effects 
make a more congenial medium for the 
leguminous crops to grow In, and It Is frequently 
advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. 
After this first heavy application about 800 
pounds of lime should be applied per acre every 
four or five years. 



CHAPTER VII 

INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE 

IT Is a common saying among farmers who 
have grown apples on their farms for 
many years that there are many more 
pests to fight than there used to be. How often 
we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect 
apples that grew on a certain tree " when he was 
a boy," before people had generally heard of 
codling moth, San Jose scale, apple scab, or 
other troubles now only too common. '' We 
never sprayed, but the apples were fine," he 
says. Is this the usual glorification of the myth- 
ical past or is it true? In all probability It Is a 
little of both, but it Is undoubtedly true that In- 
sects and fungous diseases have Increased 
rapidly of late years. 

Reasons for Pest Increase.— When there 
Is an abundance of food and conditions are 
otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will 
thrive better than when the food supply is scarce 
and conditions unfavorable. As long as apple 
92 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 

trees were scattered and few in number there 
was not the opportunity for the development of 
apple pests, but as soon as they became numer- 
ous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant 
parasites was wonderful to see. Another factor 
which has been at least partly responsible for 
the great increase in our insect life is that man 
has upset nature's balance by destroying so 
many birds, and, by interfering with their na- 
tural surroundings, driven them away. Birds are 
great destroyers of insects, and their presence 
in the orchard should be encouraged in every 
possible way. Add to these facts the marvelous 
fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is 
less remarkable. Loss from these orchard 
pests has now run up into the millions. It has 
been estimated that the loss in the United States 
from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 
annually. Thus has the necessity for fighting 
these enemies of good fruit arisen. 

In order successfully to combat an Insect or 
a disease it is very necessary to have a somewhat 
detailed knowledge of Its life history and to 
know Its most vulnerable point of attack. It 
is impossible to work most intelligently and 
effectively without this knowledge, which should 
Include the several stages of the insect or dis- 
93 



APPLE GROWING 

ease, the point of attack, the time of making 
it, and when and with what it can be most 
easily destroyed. The number of insects and 
diseases which affect the apple is so great that 
it is simply out of the question to treat them 
all in detail here. We have therefore selected 
nine insects and three diseases as those pests 
of the apple which are most common and whose 
effects are usually most serious. The essential 
facts in their life histories and their vulnerable 
points will now be pointed out. The method of 
study may be taken as applicable to any other 
pests which it may be necessary to combat. 

Insect Pests. — Of the many insects which 
affect either the tree or the fruit of the apple, 
the nine selected probably inflict the most dam- 
age and are the most diflicult to control of all 
those in the Northeastern States. According to 
their method of attack all insects may be di- 
vided into two classes: biting and sucking. 
Biting insects are those which actually eat parts 
of the tree, as the leaves or fruit. These are 
combated by the use of stomach poisons as we 
shall see in the following chapter. Sucking In- 
sects are those which do not eat the tree or fruit 
directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis 
suck the juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or 
94 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 

fruit. Of the biting insects the five which we 
shall discuss are: (i) codling moth, (2) apple 
maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, 
(5) curculio. The four sucking insects dis- 
cussed are: (6) San Jose scale, (7) oyster shell 
scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant 
louse. 

I. The Codling Moth, the most insidious 
of all apple pests. Is mainly responsible for 
wormy apples. The adult is a night flying moth 
with a wing expanse of from one-half to three- 
quarters of an inch. The moths appear about 
the time the apple trees are In bloom. Each 
female Is supposed to lay about fifty eggs which 
are deposited on both the leaves and fruit, but 
mostly on the calyx end of the young apples. 
The eggs hatch in about a week and the young 
larvae or caterpillars begin at once to gnaw 
their way Into the core of the fruit. Three- 
fourths of them enter the apple through Its 
blow end. 

After twenty to thirty days of eating In the 
apple, during which time they become full 
grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, 
they leave the apple, usually through Its side. 
The full grown caterpillar now secretes Itself 
In the crevices In the bark of the tree or in 
95 



APPLE GROWING 

rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but 
slight silken cocoon in which the pupal period is 
passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when the 
process is sometimes repeated, so that in the 
Eastern States there are often two broods each 
season. 

The most vulnerable point in the career of 
this little animal is when it is entering the fruit. 
If a fine poison spray covers the surface of the 
fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end 
of the apple inside and out, when the young 
larvae begin to eat they will surely be killed. It 
is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per 
cent, of the cocoons on the bark of trees. 

2. Apple Maggot. — It is fortunate that the 
apple maggot, often called the railroad worm 
because of its winding tunnels all through the 
fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth 
for it is much more difficult to control with a 
poison. A two-winged fly appears in early sum- 
mer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the 
skin of the apple. In a few days the eggs hatch 
and the maggots begin to burrow indiscrimin- 
ately through the fruit. The full grown larvae 
are a greenish white in color and about a quar- 
ter of an inch long. From the fruit this insect 
goes to the ground where the pupal stage is 

96 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 

passed In the soil. The next summer the fly 
again emerges and lays its eggs. 

Spraying is not effective against this Insect 
as the poison cannot be placed where It will be 
eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy 
Is to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground 
and for this purpose hogs in the orchard are 
very effective. The distribution of this insect In 
the orchard Is limited and It has shown a 
marked preference for summer and autumn 
varieties. 

3. The Bud Moth closely resembles the 
codling moth in form and size, but differs from 
It In color and life history. The larvae, after 
hibernating through the winter, appear as little 
brown caterpillars about May first or as soon 
as the buds begin to open, and a week or two 
later begin their work of destruction. They 
Inflict great damage on the young leaf and fruit 
buds by feeding on them. When full grown the 
larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining 
black head, are about one-half inch long. They 
then roll themselves up in a tube made from 
a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened to- 
gether with silken threads. In this cocoon pupa- 
tion, which lasts about ten days, takes place. 
Early in, June the moths appear. There Is but 
97 



APPLE GROWING 

one brood In the North. These insects can be 
successfully combated with a poison spray ap- 
plied early before the buds open. 

4. The Cigar Case Bearer winters In Its 
case attached to a twig. When the buds begin 
to open in the spring it moves to them, carrying 
Its case with It, and begins to feed on the young 
and tender buds. By the time the leaves are 
well open, it has fed a good deal on the tender 
buds and young leaves and Is ready to make a 
new and larger case. This It does by cutting 
a leaf to suit and then rolling It up In the form 
of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the 
larvae continue feeding about a month, caus- 
ing much Injury to the leaves, although this Is 
not as serious as the mutilation of the young 
buds In the spring, before the tree is fully 
leafed out. 

About the last of June pupation takes place 
and In about ten days the moth emerges. The 
eggs are then layed along the midribs of the 
leaves and hatch In about fifteen days. The 
newly hatched larvae become leaf miners dur- 
ing August, and migrate to the branches again 
in the fall where they pass the winter. These 
leaf and bud eating insects can be destroyed by 
applying a poison to the buds before they open 

98 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 

and again later to the opening leaf and flower 
buds. 

5. CuRCULio Beetles pass the winter under 
leaves and grass. In the spring they feed on 
the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon as 
the young fruits are formed the female de- 
posits her eggs In a puncture made just Inside 
a short, crescent-shaped cut In the little apple. 
The eggs soon hatch and the young grubs bur- 
row Into the fruit to the core where they remain 
two or three weeks, or until full grown. The 
larvae then bore their way out of the fruit and 
drop to the soil where they pupate. The earliest 
of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit. 
The principal damage from this pest comes 
from the feeding of the beetles and the work of 
the larvae, although the latter Is not as bad 
in the apple as In the stone fruits. A poison 
on the young foliage as soon as the beetles 
begin to feed Is the best method of combating 
curcullo. Jarring the tree Is not as practicable 
with the apple as it is with the plum. 

6. The San Jose Scale, one of our worst 
apple tree pests, Is a sucking Insect extracting 
the juices of the tree from the trunk, limbs 
or branches, or even from the leaves and fruit 
when it is very abundant. At first the growth 

99 



APPLE GROWING 

Is checked only, but as the insects develop their 
work finally results in the death of the part, 
unless they are destroyed. The insect winters 
in an immature condition on the bark under a 
grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about 
the size of a pinhead. The young, of which a 
great many broods are produced, are soft 
bodied but soon form a scale. In the early 
spring small two-winged insects issue from these 
scales. 

After mating the males die, but the females 
continue to grow and in about a month begin 
the production of living young — minute, yel- 
low, oval creatures. These young settle on the 
bark and push their slender beaks into the plant 
from which they begin to suck out the sap. 
In about twelve days the insects molt and in 
eight to ten more they change to pupae, and 
in from thirty-three to forty days are them- 
selves bearing young. A single female may give 
birth to four hundred young in one season and 
there are several generations in a season. This 
great prolificacy is what makes the scale so seri- 
ous a pest. 

In fighting It every scale must be destroyed 
or thousands more are soon born. In order to 
be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime 

lOO 



INSECTS^ AND DISEASES 

and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or 
choking the spray must be applied on the dor- 
mant wood in the spring or fall or both. Thor- 
oughness is most essential. 

7. The Oyster Shell Scale, although it 
is essentially the same in its habits and in its 
methods of sucking the sap from the tree is 
not as bad a pest as the San Jose scale because 
it is less prolific, there being but one brood a 
year. Still this scale often destroys a branch 
and sometimes a whole tree. The " lice " win- 
ter as eggs under the scale and hatch in late 
May or early June. After crawling about the 
bark for two or three days, the young fix their 
beaks into it and remain fastened there for life, 
sucking out the sap. By the end of the season 
they have matured and secreted a scaly cover- 
ing under which their eggs for the next season's 
crop winter. A smothering spray like lime and 
sulphur applied strong when the trees are dor- 
mant will practically control this scale. But 
the young may be destroyed in summer by a 
contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or 
whale oil soap. 

8. The Leaf Blister Mite is a small, four- 
legged animal, so small as hardly to be visible 
to the naked eye. It passes the winter In the 

lOI 



APPLE GROWING 

bud scales and as soon as these begin to open 
in the spring it passes to the tender leaves which 
it punctures, producing light green or reddish 
pimples according to the variety of apple. 
These later develop into galls or blisters of a 
blackish or reddish brown color and finally re- 
sult in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are 
sometimes practically defoliated by this pest, 
and this at a time when a good foliage Is most 
needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited 
and when the young hatch they burrow in all 
directions. In October the mites abandon the 
leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. 
A strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the 
trees are dormant destroys the young mites 
while they are yet on the bud scales, which is 
practically the only time when they are vulner- 
able. 

9. Aphides^ or plant lice, are of seasonal Im- 
portance. Although nearly always present, It 
is only occasionally that they become so num- 
erous as seriously to damage mature apple trees. 
But they are more often serious pests on young 
trees where they should be carefully watched. 
Their presence Is determined by the curled and 
distorted condition of the terminal leaves on 
the under side of which the green or pinkish 
lice will be found. Eggs deposited In autumn 
102 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 

pass the winter in this condition, hatching in 
the spring about the time of the beginning of 
the growth of vegetation. From these winter 
eggs females are hatched which bear living 
young, which may also bear living young and 
so on for several generations until autumn, 
when eggs are again deposited for the winter 
stage. 

Fortunately weather conditions together with 
parasitic and predaceous insects hold them more 
or less in check. Because of the difficulty of 
getting at the underside of the curled leaves 
where these lice mostly work they are extremely 
hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the 
trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs 
as it comes in contact with. A tobacco extract 
is quite effective as a contact spray in the grow- 
ing season. The trees must be closely watched 
and if the lice appear in any considerable num- 
ber they must be promptly attended to or seri- 
ous damage is likely to result. 

These are by no means all the insect pests 
which the fruit grower has to combat, but they 
are usually the most important. Canker worm 
and tent caterpillars often do great damage 
in unsprayed orchards, but they are easily 
controlled by an application of a poison as soon 
103 



APPLE GROWING 

as they appear. The same Is true of other 
caterpillars and leaf eating worms. Apple tree 
borers are frequently serious, especially in 
young orchards, where the trees should be regu- 
larly " grubbed " and the borers dug out or 
killed with a piece of wire. They may be 
prevented to some extent by painting the tree 
trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or some 
gas tar preparation. 

Diseases. — Although not as numerous as 
insects, the diseases which attack the apple in- 
flict great damage and are fully as difficult to 
control. They are caused by bacteria and by 
fungi which may be compared to weeds growing 
on or in the tree instead of the soil. If either 
of these works within the plant, as is sometimes 
the case, it must be attacked before it enters. 
It is very necessary to be thorough In order 
to control these diseases. Weather conditions 
Influence nearly all of them materially. Of 
those which attack the apple tree or fruit we 
have selected three as the most serious and the 
most necessary for the grower to combat, 
namely, (i) apple scab, (2) New York apple 
tree canker, and (3) flre blight. To these 
should be added in the South and middle lati- 
tudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot. Baldwin 
104 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 

spot Is also frequently serious in some seasons 
and localities. 

( I ) The Apple Scab^ commonly known 
among growers as " the fungus," is the most 
important of our common apple diseases and 
Is most evident on the fruit, although it attacks 
the leaves as well. In some seasons the fruit Is 
made almost unsalable. This disease lives 
through the winter on old leaves. In the spring 
about blossoming time the spores are scattered 
by the wind and other agencies, and reaching 
the tender shoots germinate and enter the tisses 
of the plant. Their development is greatly 
dependent on the weather. In a season in which 
there is little fog or continued damp or humid 
weather, they may not develop at all, but 
where these conditions are present they fre- 
quently become very virulent. 

Spraying will be governed by the weather 
conditions, but the mixture must be applied very 
promptly as soon as it Is evident that it Is likely 
to be necessary and must cover every part of 
the tree to be effective. The object is to prevent 
the spores from germinating, the spray being 
entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. 
The disease most frequently first manifests it- 
self on the tender new growth and on the blos- 
105 



APPLE GROWING 

soms. Two mixtures have been found to con- 
trol It, namely, Bordeaux and a weak solution 
of lime and sulphur. One or other of these 
should be applied just before the blossoms open, 
just before they fall, and when necessary two 
and nine weeks later. 

(2) New York Apple Tree Canker Is 
usually found mainly on the trunks of old trees, 
but It also affects the smaller branches. Prac- 
tically every old or uncared for orchard has 
more or less of this canker, and where it Is 
not checked It eventually destroys the tree. 
This fungus Is the cause of most of the dead 
wood found In old orchards. The surface of 
the canker Is black and rough and covered with 
minute black pimples. It lives over winter and 
spreads from one branch or tree to another. 
As It most frequently enters a branch through 
wounds made In pruning, these should be 
promptly painted over with a heavy lead and 
oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out 
and. removed as soon as observed. The value 
of spraying for this disease Is not definitely 
known, but It Is seldom very troublesome in well 
sprayed and well cared for orchards. 

(3) Blight appears on apple trees in three 
forms, as blossom blight, as twig blight, and as 

106 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 

blight cankers. It is a bacterial disease which 
is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and can- 
not be controlled by spraying. The bacteria 
are carried over the winter cankers on the 
main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing 
out In a sticky mass in the spring. These 
cankers should be cut out with a sharp knife 
cutting well Into the healthy bark and then 
washing the wound with corrosive sublimate, 
one part to one thousand of water. Cut- 
ting out and destroying are also the chief 
remedies to be used when the blight appears 
In the twigs and blossoms. It Is not usually 
as serious on apples as on pears. Some varie- 
ties, like Alexander, are more subject to It than 
others. 



107 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING 

THE SPRAYING of fruit trees In the 
United States Is of comparatively recent 
origin, having been a general commer- 
cial practice for less than two decades. It In- 
volves the principle of applying with force and 
In the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which 
a poison or a substance which kills by contact 
Is suspended. The first application of the prin- 
ciple was against chewing Insects with hellebore. 
Pure arsenic was early used and soon led to 
the use of other arsenicals. 

Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, 
was discovered by accident In 1882 when It was 
found to control mildew In France. Up until 
about five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the 
fungicide and parls green as the poison were 
almost universally used. Within the last few 
years, however, there have been developed two 
substitutes which, although known and used to 
some extent for twenty years, have only re- 
108 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

cently come into such general use as practically 
to replace the old sprays. These are lime and 
sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide 
and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide. 

The necessity for and the advisability of 
spraying have already been pointed out. There 
is an increasing demand for fine fruit the supply- 
ing of which is possible only with thorough 
spraying. In the humid East especially the 
competition of more progressive sections in the 
West is demanding more and better spraying. 
There is no cure-all in this process. It does 
not make a tree more fruitful except as it im- 
proves its general health, but it does bring a 
larger percentage of the fruit to perfection. 
Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower 
must know what he is spraying for, when and 
with what to combat it and how to accom- 
plish the desired result most effectively. 

Spraying is an insurance against anticipated 
troubles with the fruit, and the best and most 
successful growers are those most completely 
insured. It has many general advantages also. 
It stimulates the grower to a greater interest 
in his business because of the extra knowledge 
and skill required. It compels thoroughness. 
It necessitates spending money, therefore a re- 
109 



APPLE GROJFING 

turn Is looked for. To be sure, It Is only one 
of the operations necessary to success, but It 
enables us to grow a quality of fruit which we 
could not obtain without It. 

Spray Materials are conveniently divided 
Into two classes. Insecticides and fungicides. An 
Insecticide Is a poison by which the Insect Is 
killed either directly by eating It, or Indirectly 
by the caustic, smothering, or stifling effects re- 
sulting from closing Its breathing pores. Direct 
poisons are used for Insects which eat some 
part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach 
poisons. Sprays which kill Indirectly are used 
for Insects which suck the sap or juice from the 
tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. 
Arsenical compounds have supplanted practi- 
cally all other substances used to combat ex- 
ternal biting Insects. Two stomach poisons are 
commonly used, namely, arsenate of lead and 
pans green, but the former Is rapidly replacing 
the latter. 

Arsenate of Lead Is prepared by mixing 
three parts of crystallized arsenate of soda with 
seven parts of crystallized white sugar (acetate) 
of lead In water, but It will not as a rule pay 
the grower to mix his own material, as arsenate 
of lead can be purchased In convenient commer- 

IIO 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

cial form at a reasonable price. The prepara- 
tion on the market is a finely pulverized precipi- 
tate in two forms, one a powder and the other a 
paste. These are probably about equally good 
and are readily kept suspended in water. Less 
free arsenic is contained in this form than in any 
other compound of arsenic, making it safer to 
use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate 
of lead may be used without danger of burning 
the foliage as strong as five or six pounds to 
fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the 
usual and a sufficient amount for the control of 
any apple insect for which it is efficacious. 

Paris Green Is being rapidly displaced by 
arsenate of lead for several reasons. It is a 
compound of white arsenic, copper oxide, and 
acetic acid. The commercial form is a crystal 
which in suspension settles rapidly, a serious 
fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of lead 
and hence there is greater danger of burning 
the foliage with it. Moreover, it costs from 
twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the ar- 
senate of lead can be purchased for from eight 
to ten cents a pound. 

The amount which It Is safe to use in fifty 
gallons of water Is from one-half to three-quar- 
ters of a pound. When paris green Is used 
III 



APPLE GROWING 

alone as a poison lime should be added. Both 
these arsenicals should be thoroughly wet up 
by stirring In a smaller receptacle before they 
are put Into the spray tank, In order to get 
them In as complete suspension as possible. 
They may be used in the same mixture with 
Bordeaux or lime sulphur. 

Contact Sprays. — Four compounds are 
used as contact sprays In combating sucking In- 
sects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale 
oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. 
Of these lime sulphur Is the most used and for 
winter spraying Is probably the best. This 
preparation Is made by boiling together for one 
hour or until they unite, twenty pounds of quick 
lime, fifteen pounds of flower of sulphur, and 
fifty gallons of water. Although the home 
made mixture Is much cheaper than the com- 
mercial form which may be purchased on the 
market, many people prefer the latter because 
of the Inconvenience and trouble of preparing 
the mixture, although there Is nothing difficult 
about It. 

This contact spray Is used chiefly for the San 
Jose scale and the blister mite, and in order to 
control these must be applied strong on the dor- 
mant wood. The strength necessary will vary 

112 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

from one part of the mixture above mentioned 
or of the commercial preparation, to from 
seven to ten parts of water, according to the 
density test of the material, which should be 
around twenty-eight per cent. Beaume (a scale 
for measuring the density of a liquid) for home 
made, and thirty-two per cent, for the commer- 
cial mixture. 

Any good soap is effective in destroying soft 
bodied insects such as plant lice. The fish oil 
soaps, although variable in composition, are 
often valuable, especially the one known in the 
trade as whale oil soap. This. soap dissolved 
in water by boiling at the rate of two pounds 
of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good 
winter spray for scale but should be applied 
before it gets cold as It is then apt to become 
gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against 
lice, one pound of soap to seven gallons of water 
Is strong enough to be effective. It is objection- 
able because of its odor and because it is dis- 
agreeable to make and handle. Lime sulphur 
Is to be preferred as a winter spray, but the 
soap spray is often necessary and valuable for 
summer sucking Insects. 

Kerosene emulsion was formerly more com- 
monly used than now against the scale and plant 
113 



APPLE GROWING 

lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap 
and two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of 
water — preferably in hot water. For dormant 
trees one gallon of this mixture should be di- 
luted with six gallons of water. While this 
spray is effective it Is no more so than lime- 
sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable 
to handle. As a summer spray, however, It 
Is often necessary. Several preparations of 
petroleum known as the miscible oils are some- 
times used. Their use is the same as that of 
lime-sulphur and they are not as good. 

Within the last few years a tobacco concoc- 
tion known as black leaf tobacco extract (nico- 
tine sulphate) has come into quite common use. 
It can be purchased commercially under various 
brand names, and should be diluted accord- 
ing to Its strength, but usually about one part 
to fifty of water. It may be made by boiling 
one pound of good tobacco stems in two gallons 
of water for one-half hour. Objections to It 
are that It evaporates very quickly, although 
It Is supposed to be non-volatile, and that it is ex- 
pensive, but It Is very convenient to use, can be 
readily mixed with other summer sprays, and 
Is very effective against plant lice and mites. 

Bordeaux Mixture. Fungicides are mix- 
114 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

tures of chemical compounds made up for the 
purpose of controlling plant diseases caused by 
a class of plant weeds known as fungi. There 
are three commonly well known and used fungi- 
cides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime sul- 
phur, and the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The 
Bordeaux mixture Is the best all-around fungi- 
cide known. It Is a mixture of three pounds of 
copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) 
with three or more pounds of fresh burned 
stone lime In fifty gallons of water. The two 
compounds should be put together as fruit 
growers say " with water between," that is each 
should be diluted with the water separately be- 
fore the two are mixed. 

The best plan Is to have stock mixtures of 
each in barrels, fifty gallon cider or vinegar 
barrels making good receptacles for the pur- 
pose. Place the bluestone In an old fertilizer 
or meal sack and suspend it about midway 
in the barrel of water. In a few hours It 
will all be dissolved and will remain In sus- 
pension for some length of time very well. 
If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate 
are dissolved In fifty gallons of water, each 
gallon of water will contain one pound of 
the bluestone, which makes a very convenient 
115 



APPLE GROWING 

way to measure it. So also fifty pounds of fresh 
burned stone lime should be placed In a barrel 
— In this case In the bottom of the barrel rather 
than in a sack — just covered with water and 
allowed to slake, more water being added as 
required up to fifty gallons. If too much water 
is added to the lime at the first it will be 
" drowned " and its slaking checked. These 
two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one 
pound of the copper sulphate or one pound 
of the lime, are then mixed together. 

It is well to fill the tank about half full of 
water, then put in the required amount of the 
copper sulphate, and after stirring well add the 
lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of 
lime as it minimizes the danger of burning and 
aids the mixture In sticking to the leaves well. 
If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, 
or an excess of lime, it will not be necessary 
to test the mixture, but If he Is not, a simple 
test may be made with ferro-cyanlde of potas- 
sium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops 
of this mixture will disappear if the lime Is 
equal or In excess of the copper sulphate, that 
Is, it will be neutralized, but If it Is not, they will 
remain a bright purplish red. Bordeaux mix- 
ture is used in strengths varying from three to 
ii6 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty 
gallons of water, but the former is usually 
sufficient. 

Lime-Sulphur. — The more important 
fungicides, the commercial lime sulphur and the 
self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically super- 
seding Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because 
they are necessarily better, but because there is 
frequently much burning of the foliage and 
russeting of the fruit from the use of the Bor- 
deaux. This is unfortunate as the latter is a 
rather more effective fungicide as well as more 
convenient and pleasant to use. The self-boiled 
lime sulphur is a combination of lime and sul- 
phur which is boiled by the heat of the slaking 
lime alone, and makes a pretty good substitute 
for the Bordeaux when it injures foliage or 
fruit. This preparation of lime and sulphur 
differs from the commercial form used as a 
winter wash in that it is wholly a mechanical 
mixture and not partly chemical like the latter. 
It may therefore be used on the foliage in sum- 
mer at a greater strength, there being only a 
very small percentage of sulphur In solution 
when the mixture is properly made. 

Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, 
these being from eight to ten pounds each to 
117 



APPLE GROWING 

fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best 
prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat 
enough from the slaking lime to produce a 
violent boiling for a few minutes. First, place 
say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour 
on just water enough to start it slaking nicely 
— about a gallon to each three or four pounds 
of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sul- 
phur and enough more water to slake the paste, 
keeping it well stirred meanwhile. The violent 
boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the mix- 
ture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending 
on the quality of the lime and how fast it is 
slaked. Just as soon as the violent boiling is 
over add enough cold water to stop all action. 
If this is not done, some sulphur will unite with 
the lime and burning may be the result. 

This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless 
to apple foliage and even appears to have a 
stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple 
scab, however. It is not as effective as the boiled 
wash, or the commercial preparations. For 
this disease a strength of from one to thirty 
to one to forty (that is about one and one-half 
gallons of the prepared mixture testing 31 to 
33 Beaume to fifty gallons of water) of the 
commercial lime-sulphur is most effective. 
118 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

Spray Pumps. — The application of the fore- 
going spray mixtures is fully as important as 
the sprays themselves, for on the right appli- 
cation at the right time depends the efficacy 
of the spray. For this purpose a considerable 
amount of special machinery has been devised. 
Lack of space prevents us from going into much 
detail on this question, so we must be con- 
tent with merely outlining the different types 
of machines and mentioning their accessories. 
Sprays are forced through single, double or 
triple acting pumps, either by hand or power. 
The three types of power available are traction, 
compressed air, and gasoline, the last being 
the most used. Steam power is practically 
obsolete. 

The knapsack is the simplest type of hand 
pump, but it IS of no practical use in the mature 
apple orchard. For small orchards and small 
trees several types of hand pumps are quite 
effective. The lever type of pump, where the 
handle is pushed from and pulled toward the 
operator, probably gives the most power with 
the least tiring effect, because it enables one to 
use the weight of the body to some extent. It is 
best not to have the pump attached to the spray 
barrel or tank, but set on a movable base of its 
119 



APPLE GROWING 

own, as then it can be used for any one of a 
number of barrels. Such an outfit may be 
obtained for from twenty-five to forty dollars. 

It is well to buy a standard make of pump, 
preferably from a nearby dealer, so that repairs 
may be readily secured. For all orchards up 
to three or four acres in size, and for larger 
orchards where the trees are not over twelve 
or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig 
is the most practicable and advisable, when the 
expense is taken into consideration. This ap- 
plies especially to the general farm. 

The power of a traction sprayer is developed 
from the wheels. There is much discussion as 
to whether sufl^cient power to throw an effective 
spray can be supplied by this method. By ac- 
cumulating considerable pressure by extra driv- 
ing at the ends of the rows and then skipping 
every other tree in order to keep up the pres- 
sure, going over the rows twice, a very satis- 
factory pressure can be obtained for trees which 
are not too large. The argument for this type 
of machine, and it is especially applicable on 
the general farm, is that it can be used for other 
spraying on the farm as well as for the apple 
orchard, especially for potatoes and small 
fruits. It is a comparatively cheap type of 

I20 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

power, particularly when it can be used for 
several purposes. 

The compressed air gas sprayer comes next 
In point of simplicity and cost for a power 
sprayer. Its most economic use Is found where 
orcharding Is carried on extensively enough to 
pay to compress the air or gas right In the 
orchard. This Is of course impracticable on 
the general farm. Therefore the air or gas 
must be purchased and shipped to the farm In 
steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical 
times and is rather expensive. Moreover, the 
gas is open to the objection of interfering with 
the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating 
some of the sulphur. 

The gasoline engine is the most useful and 
popular type of power for the orchard sprayer, 
as well as for general use on the farm. Many 
makes are now so perfected that they give little 
or no trouble. One and a half or two horse- 
power are fully sufficient for spraying, but most 
farmers prefer from three to five horsepower 
in order to be able to use the engine more for 
other purposes. The latter power Is open to ob- 
jection for spraying purposes on account of Its 
weight, as especially In early spring it Is very 
difficult to haul so heavy a rig over the soft 

121 



APPLE GROWING 

ground. Such an outfit Is also rather expensive. 
Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient 
power for spraying cost from $75.00 to 
$150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency. 
For very large trees, for mature orchards, and 
for all orchards larger than four or five acres, 
the gasoline engine Is the best source of power 
for spraying, particularly where It can be used 
for other purposes on the farm. 

A double acting or two cylinder pump is most 
desirable. If there Is plenty of power a triplex 
or three cylinder pump Is still better. The re- 
quirements of a good pump are : sufficient power 
for the work desired of It; strong but not too 
heavy; fewest possible number of parts con- 
sistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; 
and a good sized air chamber. A number of 
standard makes of pumps answer these con- 
ditions very well. Pumps should always be 
washed out with clean water when the operator 
is through with them and the metal parts coated 
with vaseline. Never leave water In a pump 
chamber or In the engine jacket In cold weather. 

The ordinary hand pump and barrel give 

satisfactory use when placed on a wagon, unless 

the trees are very high. But for large orchards, 

high trees, and where larger tanks and power 

122 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

pumps are used it Is desirable to have a special 
truck for the outfit. The front wheel should 
be made low so as to turn under the tank to 
enable the driver to make short turns around 
the trees. A tower Is desirable where high old 
trees are to be sprayed. This should be sub- 
stantial but as small as Is consistent with the 
purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and 
make It difficult to get close up around the trees. 
The height of the platform must be regulated 
by the need and by the roughness of the ground. 
On steep side hills the wagon body on which the 
tank rests should be underslung. 

In order to get as near to the work as pos- 
sible get a long hose — from twenty to thirty 
feet according to circumstances. The best 
quality, three to five ply, Is none too good. 
Hose should be three-eighths to one-half Inch 
In diameter, one Inch being too heavy. Ex- 
tension rods are a practical necessity. They 
should be ten to twelve feet long and made of 
bamboo lined with brass, that Is, as light as 
possible. Nozzles are very Important In thor- 
ough and effective spraying. There Is no best 
nozzle, nor one with which all the work can 
be done. 

Several things should be considered In select- 
123 



APPLE GROWING 

ing a nozzle. First of all, It must be of con- 
venient form so as not to catch in trees and 
so constructed that it will not clog easily. 
Second, for apple trees it should have good 
capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as 
possible. Third, the nature of the spray is 
very important. Insecticides should usually be 
applied with force in a comparatively coarse 
driving spray, but fungicides should be applied 
In a fine mist or fog so that they will settle on 
every part of the tree. Therein lies the diffi- 
culty of applying Insecticides and fungicides to- 
gether. 

Time of Spraying. — Fortunately It is not 
necessary to make a separate application for 
each Insect and disease, but they may be treated 
together to some extent. In most cases expedi- 
ency demands that the arsenlcals be used with 
the fungicides. Many growers are finding the 
most satisfactory results, however, from apply- 
ing the arsenical spray separately, just after the 
blossoms fall, because of the physical impossi- 
bility of properly applying the two sprays — -the 
driving and the mist spray— together. For 
most practical purposes on the general farm, 
three sprayings are necessary In order to secure 
clean fruit and four, sometimes five, are often 
124 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

advisable. These may be summarized as 
follows : 

1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the 
dormant wood in early spring. 

2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead 
just before the blossoms open (may sometimes 
be omitted). 

3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) 
just after the blossoms fall. 

4. With the same two or three weeks later. 

5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks 
later (may sometimes be omitted). 

(In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and 
apple blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.) 

6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after 
the blossoms fall. 

7. Again with the same about two weeks later. 



125 



A Calendar for Spraying Apples 



INSECTS 


Nature 

of 
Injury 


Before 
Leaf 
Buds 
Open 


Before 

Flower 

Buds 

Open 


After 

Petals 

Fall 


In 
2 to 3 
Weeks 


In 
8 to 9 
Weeks 


Materia 

als to 

Use 


Codling 
Moth 


Eating 
Worm 






X 


X 


X 


Lead 
Arsenate 

or 
Par. Gr. 


San Jose 
Scale 


Sucking 
Insect 


X 










Lime 
Sulphur 


Oyster 
Shell 
Scale 


Sucking 
Insect 


X 










Lime 
Sulphur 


Blister 
Mite 


Leaf 
Miner 


X 










Lime 
Sulphur 


Plant 
Louse 


Sucking 
Insect 




when seen 






Whale Oil 
Soap or 
Tobacco 


Cigar 

Case 

Bearer 


Eating 
Insect 




X 


X 


X 




Lead 
Arsenate 

or 
Par, Gr. 


Apple 
Maggot 


Eating 
Worm 


X 


X 


destroy fruit 


Lead 
Arsenate 

or 
Par. Gr. 


Bud 
Moth 


Eating 
Worm 


X 


X 


X 






Lead 
Arsenate 

or 
Par. Gr. 


Curculio 


Eating 

Worm& 

Beetle 




X 


X 






Lead 
Arsenate 
orPar.Gr. 


Diseases 














Lime 
Sulphur 


Apple 
Scab 


Fungus 


X 


X 


X 


X 


if 
neces- 
sary 


or 
Bordeaux 
3-3 
-50 


New York 

Apple 

Tree 

Canker 


Fungus 


X? 


cut out 
infections 






Lime 
Sulphiu* 


Leaf 
Spot 


Fungus 


X 


X 


X 






Lime 
Sulphur 


Sooty 
Blotch 








X 


X 


X 


Bordeaux 
Mixture 

and Lime 
Sulphiu- 



126 



CHAPTER IX 

HARVESTING AND STORING 

APPLES are practically never allowed to 
ripen on the trees but are picked and 
shipped green. By " green" we mean 
not fully ripe, not ripe enough to eat out of 
hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is 
to be shipped any considerable distance or which 
is to be stored. Used in this sense green has 
no reference to color, but as a matter of fact, 
much of our fruit is picked too green, before 
it has even reached its full size and is well 
colored. There is no exact time at which 
apples must be picked, but this depends on many 
factors such as the variety, the distance to be 
shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other 
conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differ- 
ences. 

The time at which any variety should- be 
picked in a particular section will be learned by 
experience. In general, apples should be left 
127 



APPLE GROWING 

on the tree as long as possible In order to get 
the best size and color. When the apples begin 
to drop badly It Is a pretty sure Indication that 
It is time to pick. If the fruit Is to be sold In the 
local market or for Immediate consumption, It 
may be allowed to get riper than would other- 
wise be the case. With most varieties one pick- 
ing Is sufficient, but In the case of varieties like 
the Wealthy which does not ripen uniformly, or 
like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always 
color evenly, two or three pickings should be 
made. Two or three pickings are practically 
always necessary where fancy fruit Is desired, 
in order to get the Ideal size, color, and uni- 
formity. 

Ladders. — There are two general types of 
picking ladders, the rung and the step ladders. 
For large trees the rung ladders are the best. 
They may be obtained In lengths to suit the 
height of the tree. Lengths of more than 
twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too 
heavy and clumsy to handle, even when made of 
pine, which Is the best material as It Is light and 
strong for Its weight. In very old, high trees 
extension rung ladders are sometimes used. 
They are also useful for Interior work but are 
heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten 
128 



HARVESTING AND STORING 

to twenty cents a running foot. Step ladders 
are useful only on young and small trees. The 
two styles, the three (Japanese) and four 
legged, are both quite satisfactory where one 
can reach the fruit from them. 

Receptacles for picking usually hold about 
half a bushel. Both baskets and bags are used, 
some preferring one and some the other, and 
a choice between them is merely a matter of 
personal preference. There is a little less li- 
ability of bruising the apples in bags than in 
baskets, but the latter are more convenient in 
some ways. Fruit should never be thrown or 
dropped Into a basket but always handled care- 
fully. Some varieties, as Mcintosh, show al- 
most every finger mark and literally require 
handling with gloves. 

Handling. — The old custom of picking and 
laying on the ground in the orchard is a poor 
one and should not be followed, as it causes 
unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, 
fruit should be packed and hauled to storage 
as soon after picking as possible. Picking and 
placing directly on the packing table from 
which the apples are immediately packed is 
the best plan where it is practicable, but as 
the weather at picking time in the Eastern 
129 



APPLE GROWING 

States IS frequently quite uncertain, it is not 
always possible to follow this plan as closely 
as can be done in the West, where dry air and 
sunshine prevail. Still, wherever there is a con- 
siderable quantity of fruit and several pickers, 
the plan of packing directly from the table is 
best. Many growers pick in boxes and barrels 
and haul the apples to a packing shed to be 
packed later. Convenience and expediency must 
govern the general farmer who is not always at 
liberty to choose the best plan, often having to 
do as he can. 

Packing Tables enable the grower to pack 
his fruit better because he can see better what 
he is doing, and to handle the fruit more cheaply 
and quickly and with less injury. They should 
be portable so that they can be moved about 
the orchard. A convenient type has one end 
mounted on wheels so that it can be pushed from 
one place to another. The top of the table 
should be made of two strong layers of canvas, 
one tacked firmly to the framework of the table 
with about three or four inches of dip and the 
other laid loosely over it. This plan provides 
a soft resting place for the fruit and the table 
can be easily cleaned off by simply throwing 
back the upper layer of canvas. 
130 



HARVESTING AND STORING 

Three feet six inches is about the right width 
for the table, and the same sloping to three feet 
four inches at one end, is the correct height 
from the ground. Most packers like to have 
this gradual slope to one end so that the apples 
will naturally feed toward that end. The length 
may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond 
which the table becomes heavy and unmanage- 
able. 

Barrels. — The standard apple barrel 
adopted by the National Apple Shippers' Asso- 
ciation and made law in New York State has 
a length of stave of twenty-eight and one-half 
inches and a diameter of head of seventeen and 
one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of 
the bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance 
between the heads is twenty-six inches. It con- 
tains one hundred quarts dry measure. The 
staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red 
gum, and the heads principally of pine with 
some beech and maple. In most apple growing 
sections barrels are made in regular cooper 
shops where their manufacture is a business by 
itself. Only the largest growers set up their 
own barrels. Practically all barrels are pur- 
chased " knocked down " and it costs from four 
to six cents each to set them up. Barrels can 

131 



APPLE GROWING 

ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five 
cents each, but the cost varies somewhat with 
the season and the region. 

Apple packages should always present a neat, 
clean, and attractive appearance. Never use 
flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of 
any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal 
of waste from the crushing and bruising of the 
fruit will be saved. A head lining of plain or 
fringed paper also adds much to the attractive- 
ness of the package. The wrapping of apples 
for barrel packing is hardly advisable. The 
fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one 
of two types of presses, both of which are 
good. 

The lever press is more responsive and the 
pressure is more easily changed, but it is harder 
to operate. The screw press distributes the 
pressure more evenly with less injury to the 
fruit and is more powerful. 

The steps in properly packing a barrel of 
apples are: First, see that the middle and 
closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nail- 
ing them and clinching the nails; second, mark 
the head plainly with the grade and variety 
and the name of the packer or owner; then 
place the barrel on a solid floor or plank and 
13,2 



HARVESTING AND STORING 

lay in the facing papers (the face end being 
packed first) ; select the " facers,'' which should 
be the best representatives of the grade being 
packed, and no others, and place them In two 
courses In regular order stems down; with a 
drop handle basket fill the barrel, using care 
not to bruise the fruit, and jarring the barrel 
back and forth on the plank as each basket is 
put into it in order to settle the fruit firmly 
in place; lastly, arrange a layer of apples stems 
up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get 
the head In place and to drive on and tighten 
the hoops. 

The Box Package Is rapidly growing in 
favor, especially as a carrier of fancy fruit. 
There Is no standard box the size of which is 
fixed by law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. 
But two sizes of boxes are in common use, both 
probably being necessary on account of the 
variation in the size of different varieties. 
The "Standard" box Is io>4 by ii^ by i8 
inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5 
cubic Inches (the lawful stricken bushel is 
2,150.4 cubic Inches). The " Special" box is 
10 by II by 20 Inches Inside measurement and 
contains 2,200 cubic Inches. The bulge when 
properly made will add about 150 cubic inches 

133 



APPLE GROWING 

more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic 
inches and 2,350 cubic inches respectively. 

Spruce Is the most reliable and In general the 
best material. Fir is sometimes used, but Is 
likely to split. Pine Is good If strong enough. 
The ends should be of three-quarter-inch mate- 
rial; the sides of three-elghth-Inch, and the tops 
and bottoms-^two pieces each — of one-quarter- 
inch material. There should also be two cleats 
each for top and bottom. The sides of the 
box should be nailed with four, preferably five- 
penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The 
cleats should be put neatly on each end and 
four nails put Into them, going through Into 
the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come 
*' knocked down " or In the flat and are usually 
put together by the grower. They cost from 
ten to thirteen cents each in the flat. 

There are several kinds of packs, depending 
on the size of the apples and the choice of the 
grower. The diagonal pack with each apple 
resting over the spaces between others is pref- 
erable, but on account of the size of the apples 
one is often forced to use the straight pack 
with the apples In regular right angle rows for 
some sizes. The offset pack, first three (or 
four) on one side and then on the other, Is very 



HARVESTING AND STORING 

much like the diagonal, but not much used on 
account of its accommodating too few apples 
in a box. The following table gives the packs, 
number of rows, number of apples in the row, 
box to use, and number of apples used to the 
box, as used at Hood River, Oregon: 



Size expressed 


No. 


apples 


No. 




in No. apples 






in 


layers in Box 


per box 


Tier 


Pack 


row 


depth 


used 


45 


3 


3 St. 


5-5 


3 


Standard 


54 


3 


3 St. 


6-6 


3 


Special 


63 


3 


3 St. 


7-7 


3 


Special 


64 


3/2 


2-2 Diag. 


4-4 


4 


Standard 


72 


z'A 


2-2 Diag. 


4-5 


4 


Standard 


80 


2>V2 


2-2 Diag. 


5-5 


4 


Standard 


88 


z'A 


2-2 Diag. 


5-6 


4 


Standard 


96 


3^ 


2-2 Diag. 


6-6 


4 


Special 


104 


2>y2 


2-2 Diag. 


6-7 


4 


Special 


112 


3/2 


2-2 Diag. 


7-7 


4 


Special 


120 


3^ 


2-2 Diag. 


7-8 


4 


Special 


128 


4 


4 St. 


8-8 


4 


Special 


144 


4 


4 St. 


9-9 


4 


Special 


150 


4/2 


3-2 Diag. 


6-6 


5 


Standard 


163 


4/2 


3-2 Diag. 


6-7 


5 


Standard 


175 


4>4 


3-2 Diag. 


7-7 


5 


Standard 


185 


aYa 


3-2 Diag. 


7-8 


5 


Special 


200 


Ay2 


3-2 Diag. 


8-8 


5 


Special 



It is good practice to wrap apples packed in 
boxes. For this purpose a heavy-weight tis- 
sue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10, 
according to the size of the apple, is used. A 
lining paper 1 8 by 24 in size and " white news " 
in grade is first placed in the box. Between 
the layers of apples a colored " tagboard '' 
^2>S 



APPLE GROWING 

paper, size I7>^ by ii or 20 by 9^, accord- 
ing to the box used, is laid so as to make the 
layers come out right at the top. In pack- 
ing the box is inclined toward the packer 
for convenience in placing the fruit. After 
laying in the lining paper each apple is wrapped 
and put in place. As an aid to picking up the 
thin wrapping paper a rubber " finger" is used 
on the forefinger. When the box is packed the 
layers should stand a quarter to a half inch 
higher in the middle than at the ends, in order 
to give a bulge or spring to the top and bot- 
tom which holds the fruit firmly in place with- 
out bruising. 

There has been much discussion as to 
whether the box or the barrel is the better pack- 
age for apples. This is needless, for as a mat- 
ter of fact each Is best for its own particular 
purpose. The barrel Is best adapted as a pack- 
age for large commercial quantities of fruit 
and where labor could not be had to pack ap- 
ples In boxes even If the trade wanted them. 
The barrel permits the packing of a greater 
variety in size and shape than does the box, 
and these can be more easily and cheaply han- 
dled In packing. 

On the other hand, the box is the ideal pack- 
136 



HARVESTING AND STORING 

age for small amounts of fancy fruit, to be 
used for a family- or fruit-stand trade. It pre- 
sents a neater and more fancy appearance and 
Is a more convenient package to handle, as well 
as one which is more open to inspection. It 
already has a better reputation as a quality con- 
tainer than the barrel. As a fancy package 
for a limited private trade from the small gen- 
eral farm orchard with high-class varieties like 
the Northern Spy, Mcintosh, and others there 
is no comparison of the box with the barrel. 

Storage. — Car refrigeration and cold stor- 
age of fruit are comparatively modern develop- 
ments. Few persons who have not been af- 
fected directly realize what a tremendous Influ- 
ence they have had upon the fruit, and particu- 
larly the apple industry. Apples could not be 
shipped any very great distance. Crops had 
to be marketed Immediately and when they 
were large the markets were soon glutted and 
the fruit became almost valueless. The first 
hot spell would demoralize the trade alto- 
gether. Then later in the season the supply 
would become exhausted and famine would en- 
sue where but a few weeks before there had 
been a feast. Under such conditions it is not 
surprising that the apple industry did not de- 

137 



APPLE GROWING 

velop very rapidly and that apple growing was 
mostly confined to areas near the larger mar- 
kets. 

The coming of the refrigerator car extended 
fruit-growing over a much wider area. Re- 
frigeration on shipboard opened up and en- 
larged the export trade. Cold storage ware- 
houses lengthened the season by holding over 
the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in 
the market and providing a winter supply of 
apples. These conditions created a more sta- 
ble market with more uniform prices, extending 
the business from a side issue to one of chief 
importance. Marketing has become almost a 
business by itself, inducing the formation of 
growers' associations and creating a profitable 
occupation for large dealers and commission 
men. These conditions, too, have led to spec- 
ulation. 

Two kinds of storage are used, common or 
cellar storage and cold storage. Both are 
about equally available, but the latter is too 
expensive for the small grower. There is al- 
ways a question as to the advisability of the 
small grower storing his fruit. Storage means 
a degree of speculation. " A bird in the hand 
is worth two in the bush," especially when the 

138 



HARVESTING AND STORING 

bird Is a good one. So far as rules can be laid 
down, the following are pretty safe ones to 
keep in mind: It is safest to store apples when 
they are of the highest quality; in a season 
most unfavorable to common storage; when the 
fewest are being stored; when the price in the 
fall is medium to low, never when high; and 
when one can afford to lose the whole crop. 

Successful storage requires several things: 
good fruit, stored immediately after picking, 
careful sorting and handling, subsequent rest, 
and a reasonable control of the temperature. 
The functions of storage are to arrest ripening, 
retard the development of disease, and furnish 
a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of ap- 
ples does not remedy over-ripeness nor prevent 
deterioration of already diseased, bruised, or 
partly rotted fruit. There are three general 
methods of storage: (i) by ventilation, (2) 
by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means. 

Cooling by ventilation offers the most prac- 
tical system for a farm storage. It requires 
that there be perfect insulation against outside 
temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and 
careful watching of temperatures. To provide 
for good insulation a dead air space is neces- 
sary. This can be secured by a course of good 



APPLE GROWING 

two-Inch boards with one or two layers of build- 
ing paper inside and out, over a framework of 
two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, 
well matched siding should be laid also inside 
and out. Two of the dead air spaces will make 
insulation doubly sure. 

To provide for proper ventilation construct 
an intake for cold air at the bottom, and an 
outlet for warm air at the top of the room. 
These should serve all parts of the room, one 
being necessary for this purpose every twelve 
to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on 
windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve 
inches square and six to twelve feet long. 

The attention to such a house is most impor- 
tant. Keep It closed tightly early In the fall 
with blinded windows. When nights get cool 
open the doors and windows to let in cold air, 
closing them again during the day. On hot 
days close the ventilators also. In this way a 
temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be 
secured In early fall and one of 32 to 33 de- 
grees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheap- 
est as well as the most practical method of farm 
storage. 

Ice storage Is quite practical in the North, 
but more expensive. The principle of such a 
140 



HARVESTING AND STORING 

storage Is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing 
the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. 
A shaft In the middle of the room will serve to 
remove the warm air. This method Is open 
to the objection of difficulty In storing the Ice 
above the fruit. Moreover- the uniformity of 
its cold air supply Is questionable. Mechanical 
storage In which cold temperatures are secured 
by the compression or absorption of gases Is 
altogether impracticable for individual grow- 
ers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of 
capacity to construct such a storage. Rents 
of this kind of storage range from 10 to 25 
cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a 
barrel for the season of from four to six 
months. 



141 



CHAPTER X 

MARKETS AND MARKETING 

HAVING produced a good product, 
there remains the problem of making a 
profitable and satisfactory disposition 
of it. In many ways marketing Is the measure 
of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it 
to prune well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, 
or even pack well the finest kind of product, if 
after the expense of these operations Is paid 
and the railroad and commission agents have 
had their share, no profit remains to the pro- 
ducer? Many growers find it easier to pro- 
duce good fruit than to market it at a good 
price, and this is especially true of the general 
farmer. Failure to market well spells failure 
In the business of fruit growing. Successful 
marketing presupposes a knowledge of the re- 
quirements of different markets as to quality, 
varieties, and supply demanded in those mar- 
kets. Methods of distribution are also one of 
the great factors In this problem of marketing, 
142 



MARKETS AND MARKETING 

Types of Markets. — There are two gen- 
eral types of markets, the local, which Is a spe- 
cial market and the general or wholesale mar- 
ket, both of which have different but definite 
requirements. The local market handles fruit 
in small quantities, but usually with a larger 
margin of profit per unit to the producer. As 
a rule delivery is direct in a local market, and 
thus commissions are saved. Competition is 
also more or less limited to one's neighbors. 
More varieties, Including less well known ones, 
are called for. Appearance does not count for as 
much as quality, which Is of first Importance. 
Fruit may be riper as It Is consumed more 
quickly and meets with less rough handling. 
Packages are usually returned to the grower. 
Special markets are often willing to pay extra 
for fruit out of season, and they always require 
special study and adaptation to meet their 
needs. 

The general or wholesale market handles 
fruit In larger quantities, usually with a smaller 
margin of profit. A selling agent or commis- 
sion man Is the means of disposing of fruit in 
such a market, where competition Is open to 
the whole country and sometimes to the world. 
Only standard well-known varieties find a ready 
143 



APPLE GROWING 

and profitable sale. Great attention Is paid to 
appearance and comparatively little to quality. 
Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be 
packed In a standard package, which Is not re- 
turned, but goes with the fruit, and must be 
packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out 
of season fruit Is not In demand, but even the 
general market sometimes has special prefer- 
ences. 

Almost every market has favorite varieties 
for which It Is willing to pay a larger price 
than other markets. Just as Boston wants 
a brown egg and New York a white one, so 
these and other cities have their favorite vari- 
eties of apples. Some markets prefer a red 
apple, others a green one, although the former 
is most generally popular. In the mining and 
manufacturing towns working people want 
smaller green apples, or " seconds," because 
they are cheaper. Many second-class hotels 
prefer small apples. If they are well colored, as 
they go farther. The fashionable restaurant 
and the fruit stand are the markets for large, 
perfect, and highly colored specimens. House- 
wives demand cooking apples like Greenings, 
hotels want a good out-of-hand apple like the 
Mcintosh, while private families have their 
144 



MARKETS AND MARKETING 

own special favorites. As will readily be seen, 
the producer's problem Is to find the special 
market for what he grows. 

It has been said that different markets have 
special varietal preferences, paying a better 
price for these than do other markets for the 
same quality. We can only take the space here 
to point out a few of these preferences. The 
Baldwin Is by all odds our best general market 
and export variety. It Is the workingman's 
apple and finds Its best sale In our largest cities, 
particularly in New York and Chicago. The 
Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the 
northern markets than it is in the southern, 
finding its best sale in Boston and In New York, 
The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our 
large northern and eastern markets, is fairly 
well liked by the middle latitude markets, but 
not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh 
or west of Milwaukee. 

Central western markets appear to prefer 
the Hubbardson, but this apple Is fairly good 
In all markets. King Is well thought of nearly 
everywhere. Ben Davis Is a favorite In the 
South, New Orleans especially preferring It on 
account of Its keeping quality. Jonathan has a 
good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of 
145 



APPLE GROWING 

Oldenburg Is regarded as excellent in Buffalo 
and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a 
local market apple, Is well known and liked in 
all markets. Twenty Ounce Is spoken well of 
nearly everywhere. The Fameuse Is not well 
liked in the South, but popular In the North, 
etc. These particular facts as to varieties are 
best learned by experience and by observation 
of the market quotations. 

The Commission Man. — The present sys- 
tem of marketing fruit products makes the com- 
mission man almost a necessity In the general 
market. Neither the grower nor the local 
dealer can ship directly to the consumer or even 
to the retailer, except In a very limited way. It 
may be impracticable to devise any other work- 
able system, but it must be remembered that 
every man who touches a barrel of apples on 
Its journey from producer to consumer must 
be paid for doing so, and this pay must come 
either out of the seller's price or be added to 
the buyer's price. But so long as present con- 
ditions of marketing and distribution prevail, 
so long will a selling agent in the general mar- 
ket be necessary, and the evil cannot be amelior- 
ated by ranting against It. 

An unfortunate impression prevails that all 
146 



MARKETS AND MARKETING 

commission men are dishonest. This is not 
true, although undoubtedly there are many- 
scoundrels among them, as they have shippers 
almost completely at their mercy. The best 
method under our present system is to choose 
an honest commission man in the city where you 
sell, to get acquainted with him, to let him know 
that your trade will be in his hands only so 
long as he treats you fairly, and then supply 
him with as good quality of stuff as you can pro- 
duce. This plan has worked out well with 
many successful growers and marketers. 

Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome 
in successfully finding good markets is that of 
proper distribution. As has been pointed out 
in the previous chapter, there has been a great 
increase in the production of apples and hence 
in competition, accompanied by speculation and 
more intensive methods in all phases of the busi- 
ness. A necessity has arisen for the production 
of the best at a minimum cost, as well as for 
finding the best market for that product. In 
the rush for the best market every seller is apt 
to be guided only by his own immediate interest 
without due regard for the fact that others are 
acting in the same way or that there is a future. 
The result is the piling up of fruit in a market 
147 



APPLE GROWING 

of high quotations, and a subsequent drop in the 
price. Then all turn from such a market to a 
better one with the result that a famine often 
results where but a few weeks or even days be- 
fore there had been a feast. 

Thus it often happens that one market may 
have more fruit than it can possibly dispose of 
at the time, while another, perhaps equally 
good, goes begging. Such conditions are ruin- 
ous to trade. Growers are disappointed and 
ascribe the cause to the commission man. Con- 
sumers are unable many times to profit by a 
glut in the market but promptly blame the mid- 
dleman or the grower when the supply is small 
and the price high. 

Other difficulties with our system of market- 
ing are non-uniformity of the grades, the pack- 
ages, or the fruit itself. There should be a 
clear definition of just what " firsts " and " sec- 
onds " are and this definition rigidly adhered 
to. Transportation is too frequently insuffi- 
cient, not rapid enough, especially when perish- 
able fruit is shipped in small lots, and usually 
at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly 
too many middlemen between producer and 
consumer. Growers sell to local dealers who 
sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These 
148 



MARKETS AND MARKETING 

sell to wholesalers at the consuming end, who 
may sell to jobbers, who sell to retailers. Each 
man must have his profits, all of which greatly 
increases costs. 

Co-operation. — Individuals have practi- 
cally no power to remedy such a state of affairs. 
So long as producers act Independently they will 
have little power either to bring about favor- 
able legislation or to better such market condi- 
tions. Acting together as a unit growers have 
accomplished great things which can be re- 
peated. The co-operative principle has been 
well tried out In California, where It was first 
put Into operation with citrous fruits. In several 
other Western States with apples, and In Michi- 
gan and the Province of Ontario. 

Co-operative associations study carefully the 
law of supply and demand and take steps to 
adapt their shipments to It. They standardize 
the grade, the package, and the fruit, and gov- 
ern their shipments to given markets by the 
needs and the demands of those markets. 
Their unity of effort enables them to make 
great savings In the purchase of supplies, such 
as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., 
and in obtaining and distributing frequently 
knowledge of markets and market conditions. 
149 



APPLE GROWING 

They also advertise their products, making 
them better known, creating a demand for 
them, and by means of correspondence or trav- 
eling agents seek out the best markets. 

There are now several large fruit exchanges 
operating over wide sections of country. But 
the local associations are the vital units In 
any co-operative movement. Such associations 
should be Incorporated under State laws so that 
they can do all sorts of business when necessary. 
Six simple objects should be kept In mind, 
namely, ( i ) to prevent unnecessary competi- 
tion, and to supervise and control distribution 
of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in 
the grade, package, and fruit; (3) to build up 
a high standard of excellence and to create a 
demand for it; (4) to economize in buying sup- 
plies and selling products; (5) to promote edu- 
cation regarding all phases of the fruit busi- 
ness; and (6) when necessary to act as a buy- 
ing and selling agent for the community. 

Such an association requires a board of direc- 
tors, a treasurer, and an active and well-paid 
manager. The latter is most important, as 
upon his honesty, ability, and energy will largely 
depend the success or failure of the organiza- 
tion. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a 
150 



MARKETS AND MARKETING 

central packing house or under an association 
brand or guarantee, a foreman packer is also 
necessary. The capitalization required for 
such an enterprise is not necessarily large, un- 
less warehouses or packing houses are built. 
These are usually better rented until the organi- 
zation becomes well established. 

The shares should be small so that every 
member may be financially well represented, 
and members should be prohibited from hold- 
ing more than a small percentage of the total 
shares, in order to prevent possible monopoly. 
Dividends on stock held should only be expected 
from business done outside the association mem- 
bership, interest on money invested being ob- 
tained in the handling of members' products at 
cost. Receipts should be given growers for 
just what they bring in, and they should then 
be paid according to the grade of fruit which 
they contribute, prices for the same grade being 
pooled. The charge to growers for handling 
should be actual cost, but outsiders' products 
should be handled at a small profit in order 
to induce them to come into the association. 
The same method should be followed in pur- 
chasing supplies. 

The general result of such co-operation is 
151 



APPLE GROIVING 

that the consumer gets a better product for his 
money and the grower receives a better price 
for his product. It is very essential to the suc- 
cess of the organization that growers stick to- 
gether, even through low prices and discourage- 
ment which so often come, until they are firmly 
established. Substantial reduction in the cost 
of the product to consumers can only come by 
similar co-operation among them at the buying 
end and by the co-operation of both consumers 
and producers for distribution and handling in 
market. 

If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to 
attack this problem in this thorough and busi- 
nesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step 
in the right direction if they simply agree on 
certain standards of quality and packing and 
then pool their product for marketing. This 
method has also been followed with success. 



152 



CHAPTER XI 

SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 



NEARLY every general farm in the 
humid part of the United States has its 
small, old apple orchard. For the 
most part these orchards were planted in order 
to have a home source of supply of this 
popular fruit. In fact, but few orchards have 
been planted on a commercial scale with a view 
of selling the fruit, until recently and outside 
of a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find 
these old farm orchards to consist of a few 
acres containing from twenty-five to two hun- 
dred trees. These trees are usually good stand- 
ard varieties which have been the source of 
much apple " sass," many an apple pie, and 
many a barrel of cider-vinegar. 

Not having been set for profit, these trees 
received little care. Orchards were cropped 
in the regular rotation, or with hay, or pas- 
tured. Farmers then knew little of modern 
methods of orchard management. The or- 
chard was regarded as an incumbrance to the 
153 



APPLE GROWING 

land, which had to be farmed to as good advan- 
tage as possible under the circumstances, and 
If the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop, 
the owner regarded himself as fortunate In- 
deed. 

But conditions have now changed. Both 
local and foreign markets have been opened up 
and developed so that the demand for good 
fruit Is great. It will be some time before the 
thousaads of acres of orchards which have been 
and are being planted to meet this demand will 
be able to do so in any adequate way. It has 
been shown in Chapter I how heavy has been 
the falling off in the supply, even In the face of 
these heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must 
turn to the old neglected farm orchards for our 
supply of apples. Just at this particular time 
the renovation of these old orchards offers a 
splendid opportunity to Increase the farm in- 
come. 

The question is a live one on nearly every 
general farm in the East. Will It pay to try to 
renovate my old apple trees? If so, what 
should I do to make them profitable? What 
will it cost and what returns may be expected? 
The latter question will be taken up in the fol- 
lowing chapter, but here we must try to Indi- 
154 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

cate under what conditions It may pay to reno- 
vate an old orchard, as well as those under 
which It may not pay, and also how to go about 
the problem. 

Necessary Qualities. — An apple orchard 
must have certain qualifications in order to 
make it worth while to spend the time and 
money necessary to accomplish the desired re- 
sults. These we may take up briefly under five 
heads: (i) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or 
'^ stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the 
trees, and (5) soil, site, and location. The 
discussion of these subjects in Chapters II and 
III has equal application here, but we may per- 
haps point out their specific application more 
definitely In the case of the old neglected farm 
orchard. 

(i) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If 
they are the best standard market varieties, as is 
often the case, so much the better. Otherwise 
little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. 
Poor or unknown varieties have little or no 
market value, except perhaps a very local one. 
If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigor- 
ous, poor varieties may sometimes be worked 
over by top grafting to better varieties. Char- 
acteristics which may make a variety undesira- 



APPLE GROWING 

ble are: inferior quality; iinattractiveness in 
color, shape, or size; lack of hardiness in the 
tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; 
or being unknown in the market with its conse- 
quent small demand. Summer varieties are 
worth renovating only when they are in good 
demand in a nearby local market. 

(2) Vigor is more important than age in the 
tree, but is closely correlated with it. Ordi- 
narily one should hesitate to try to renovate a 
tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this 
must always depend almost wholly on its condi- 
tion and other characteristics. 

(3) In order to make a business of renova- 
tion and to do thorough work which means ex- 
pense, there must be enough of the orchard to 
justify the expenditure of the time and money. 
This affects the results not only in expense, but 
in economy in management, equipment, and 
marketing. There should be at least an acre 
of say thirty trees, and better, more than that 
number to justify the expense of time and 
money necessary for renovation. One hundred 
trees would certainly justify it, other conditions 
being favorable. Then, too, the trees should 
be in such shape that they can be properly 
treated without too great trouble and expense, 

156 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

i. e., not too scattered or Isolated or in the midst 
of regular fields better adapted for other crops. 

(4) Vigor and good general health are of 
great importance. Many old trees are too far 
gone with neglect, having been too long starved 
or having their vitality too much weakened by 
disease to make an effort for their rehabilita- 
tion worth while. Good vigor, even though it 
be dormant. Is absolutely essential. Disease 
weakens the tree, making the expense of 
renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased 
branches must be removed, requiring severe cut- 
ting and often seriously injuring the tree. Dis- 
ease too often stunts the tree to such an extent 
as to make stimulation practically impossible. 
Such matters should be carefully looked Into 
before attempting renovation. 

(5) If the soil, site, and location are all un- 
favorable or even If two of these are not good, 
time and money are likely to be wasted on reno- 
vation. What constitutes unfavorable condi- 
tions In these respects has already been pointed 
out In Chapter III. 

Practically the same principles of pruning, 

cultivation, fertilization and spraying apply In 

the management of the old orchard as In any 

other orchard. It may be well, however, to 

157 



APPLE GROWING 

restate these, briefly pointing out their special 
value and application to the old neglected or- 
chard together with the few modifications of 
practice necessary. The steps to be taken are 
four: (i) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3) culti- 
vating, and (4) spraying. 

( I ) Pruning.— Old and long-neglected ap- 
ple orchards usually have a large amount of 
dead wood in them. This may be removed at 
any time of the year, but fall and winter are 
good times to begin the work. If the trees are 
high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so 
that the middle of the trees is not well filled out, 
the trees should be headed back rather severely. 
Such trees may safely have their highest limbs 
cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not 
to remove too many branches in one year, but 
to spread severe cutting back over at least two 
years, as so much pruning at one time weakens 
the tree and causes an excessive growth of 
" suckers." Each limb should be cut back to 
a rather strong and vigorous lateral branch 
which may then take up the growth of the up- 
right one. The effect of such heading back will 
be to stimulate the branches lower down and 
probably to bring in more or less " suckers." 
The following year the best of these suckers 

158 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

should be selected at proper points about the 
tree, headed in so as to develop their lateral 
buds, and encouraged by the removal of all 
other suckers to fill in the top and center of the 
tree in the way desired. All such severe head- 
ing in should best be done in the early spring. 

(2) Fertilizing. — At some time during 
the late fall or winter twelve to fifteen loads of 
stable manure should be applied broadcast on 
each acre, scattering it well out under the ends 
of the branches. This will amount to a load to 
from three to five trees. In case manure is not 
available, or sometimes even supplementary to 
it in cases where quick results are wanted 100 
to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to 500 
pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 
pounds of sulphate or muriate of potash should 
be applied in two applications as a top dressing 
In spring, as soon as growth starts, and thor- 
oughly worked into the soil. This will give the 
trees an abundance of available plant food, 
which Is usually badly needed, and help to stimu- 
late them to a vigorous growth. Such heavy 
feeding may easily be overdone and should be 
adjusted according to conditions and the needs 
of the orchard. 

(3) Cultivating. — If the orchard has 

159 



APPLE GROWING 

been in sod for a number of years, as is often 
the case, it is usually best to plow it in the fall 
about four inches deep, just deep enough to 
turn under the sod. By so doing a large num- 
ber of roots will probably be broken, but such 
injury will be much more than offset by the stim- 
ulus to the trees the next season. It is a good 
plan to apply the stable manure on the top of 
this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall 
plowing gives a better opportunity for rotting 
the sod and exposes to the winter action of the 
elements the soil, which is usually stale and in- 
active after lying so long unturned. In the 
spring the regular treatment with springtooth 
and spiketooth harrows should be followed as 
outlined In Chapter V. 

(4) Spraying In the old orchard Is essen- 
tially the same as elsewhere. It is necessary, 
however, to emphasize the first spray, the dor- 
mant one, winter strength on the wood. This 
Is the most Important spray for a neglected 
orchard and it should be very thoroughly ap- 
plied. It is a sort of cleaning-up spray for 
scale, fungus, and insects which winter on the 
bark. In orchards where the San Jose scale 
Is bad a strong lime-sulphur spray should also 
be used In the late fall In order to make doubly 
160 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

sure a thorough cleaning up. It is usually a 
pretty good plan to scrape old trees as high 
up as the rough, shaggy bark extends, destroy- 
ing the scrapings. For this purpose an old and 
dull hoe does very well. This treatment will 
get rid of many insects by destroying them and 
their winter quarters. 

Patching Old Trees. — A few suggestions 
on patching up the weak places in an old tree 
may not be entirely out of place. The ques- 
tion is often asked, will it pay to fill up the 
decayed centers or sides of old trees? If the 
tree is otherwise desirable to save, it usually 
will. Scrape out all the dead and rotten mate- 
rial, cleaning down to the sound heart wood. 
Then fill up the cavity with a rough cement, 
being careful to exclude all air and finishing 
with a smooth, sloping surface so as to drain 
away all moisture. This treatment will prob- 
ably prevent further decay and often acts as 
a substantial mechanical support. 

Trees which are badly split or which have 
so grown that a heavy crop is likely to break 
them over should be braced with wires or bolts. 
Where the limbs are close together a bolt 
driven right through them with wide, strong 
washers at the ends is very effective in strength- 
i6i 



APPLE GROWING 

ening the tree. Where limbs must be braced 
from one side of the tree across to the other 
wires are the best to use. They may be fast- 
ened to bolts through the limbs with wide 
washers on the outside hooks on the Inside, or 
by passing the wire around the branches. In 
the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material 
such as tin, pieces of wood, or heavy leather 
should be used to protect the tree from the wire 
which would otherwise cut into the bark and 
perhaps girdle the limb. 

Cost. — For the benefit of those who would 
like to get some Idea of the probable cost of 
renovating old apple orchards, the following 
estimate made by the writer in a recent govern- 
ment publication on this subject is given. This 
estimate has been carefully made up from 
actual records kept on several New York 
farms. Because these costs are very variable 
according to the condition of the orchard, both 
maximum and minimum amounts are given per 
acre for the first year only. 

Minimum Maximum 

cost cost 

Plowing . .$ 2,00 $ 3-00 

Manure, lo to 20 loads at $1, or their 

equivalent in commercial fertilizer. 10.00 20.00 

Hauling manure 5-00 10.00 

Pruning and hauling brush • 5.00 10.00 

162 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

Disking or harrowing twice i.oo 1.50 

Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time .50 i.oo 

Cultivating two to four times 50 i.oo 

Syraying once with I^. S. dilution i to 

9— rnaterial 2.00 4.00 

Syraping once, L. S., labor i.oo 1.50 

Spraying second time with L. S. dilu- 
tion I to 40, labor and material.. . 1.50 2.50 

Spraying third time with same 1.50 2.50 

Total cost $30.00 $57.00 



163 



CHAPTER XII 

THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

THE factors have always operated to de- 
ter many persons from taking up fruit 
growing as a business or even as a 
side issue on the farm, and they will probably 
continue to be an obstacle for more time to 
come. These are the comparatively large In- 
vestment required and the necessarily long 
period of waiting before paying returns can 
be obtained. Farmers who have not gone into 
the business of fruit growing because they 
could not afford this heavy Investment or to 
wait so long for returns have been wise. 
Others who, though lacking the necessary cap- 
ital, still have planted heavily have learned to 
their sorrow the importance of capital In the 
business both for the original investment and 
to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient 
capital and the proper conditions there Is no 
more attractive or profitable line of agricul- 
ture than fruit growing. 

Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard 
to bearing age? Or what It costs to produce a 
164 



TBE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

barrel of apples ? We venture to say that very- 
few persons do. Because of the large invest- 
ment both in fixed and in working capital it is 
most important to know these costs. More- 
over an accurate knowledge of the financial con- 
ditions and facts in any business is of first im- 
portance to intelligent management. For these 
reasons every grower ought to keep careful rec- 
ords of the cost and income from each field or 
orchard every year in order to determine as 
accurately as possible what his crops have cost 
him per unit and per acre and what rate of 
interest he has realized on his investment. As 
farming becomes more intensive competition 
increases, costs multiply, and the margin of 
profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It 
therefore becomes increasingly necessary to 
have accurate records on the cost of produc- 
tion. 

Factors in the Cost of Production. — 
The value of records depends on their 
accuracy and on their completeness. There 
are a great many factors which enter 
into the cost of production. For convenience 
these may be classified as cash costs and labor 
costs. Labor charges should include the work 
of both men and teams at a rate determined 
165 



APPLE GROJVING 

by their actual cost or by a careful estimate. 
Man labor costs are easily reckoned, as they 
are either simple cash or cash plus board and 
certain privileges, the value of which should 
be estimated in cash. 

The value of horse labor is more difficult 
to determine. It is made up of interest. on 
valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, 
care, etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $io 
a month or $120 a year for a horse. Cash 
costs are interest on the investment and on the 
equipment in machinery, etc., or rental of the 
same, taxes, a proper share of the general farm 
expenses such as insurance and repairs of 
buildings, telephone, etc., the cost of spraying 
material, packages, fertilizers, etc. 

There are many ways of keeping such a rec- 
ord. Any method which accomplishes the re- 
sult in a convenient and accurate manner is a 
good one. It will usually be found necessary 
to keep a cash account or day book, entering 
all items in enough detail to make possible their 
later distribution to the proper field or crop, 
and also to keep a diary of all labor. Any 
form of diary will answer the purpose, but 
one which has ruled columns at the right side 
of the page in which to indicate the crop or 
166 



THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

field worked upon, and the number of hours 
worked Is more convenient and therefore more 
desirable. 

An Example. — For a number of years 
the author has kept such records on his 
farm In western New York. As an il- 
lustration of the method and in order to 
give the reader a general Idea as to what 
the costs above referred to are likely to be we 
venture to give the following tables. It must 
be remembered, however, that practically 
everyone of the above mentioned factors varies 
with the conditions under which the orchard 
is managed and that these figures are not an 
average but one average and on one farm. 
True averages are arrived at only by bringing 
together a large number of figures. In any 
case, the question of cost Is essentially an indi- 
vidual problem on every farm. These figures 
are of value only as an example of the method 
and the cost on one farm under Its own special 
conditions. 

The orchard for which the following figures 
were given was set in the spring of 1903, and 
the records begin with that year and end with 
19 10, covering a period of eight years In all. 
Throughout this period other crops have been 
167 



APPLE GROWING 

grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting 
to a large extent the cost of growing the or- 
chard. Forty trees at the north end of the 
orchard are pears, but they have received sub- 
stantially the same treatment as the apples and 
have not affected the cost. In 1904, 211 plum 
trees were set as fillers one way. The apple 
trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled 
one way, the trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. 
The orchard is ten rows wide and forty-seven 
long, containing in all 467 trees. 

Bringing to Bearing Age.— The first of 
the following tables is given as a sample of one 
year's records, that of 1907, on this orchard 
in order to show both the manner in which 
the costs were made up and what the items 
amounted to in one year: 

FIELD A— 1907. FIFTH YEAR 

Total Hours Cost Cost 

hours Total per acre per per 

Operation Man Horse cost Man Horse acre 100 

Mulching 3 6 $1.05 .455 .91 $0.16 $0.22 

Pruning 11 ... 1.65 1.67 25 .35 

Cultivating i... 7 7 1.75 1.06 1.06 .26 .38 

Cultivating 2.., 10 10 2.50 1.51 1.51 .38 .54 

Cultivating 3... 6 6 1.50 .91 .91 .23 .32 

Plowing in fall 47 94 16.45 7-i2 14.25 2.50 3.52 

Banking trees. . 12 ... 1.80 1.82 27 .39 

Harrowing ... 21 42 7.35 3.18 6.36 i.ii 1.58 



Totallab. cost. 117 165 $34-05 1773 25,00 $5.16 $7.30 
168 



THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

4 loads manure at $1.50.. 6.00 .91 1.29 

Equipment charge 1.15 .174 .25 

Taxes 5.29 .801 1.13 

Interest 38.48 5.83 8.23 

Total cost $84.97 ' $12,875 $18.20 



INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS— FIELD 
A— 1907 

Income Cost Profit 

75 bushels at $1.50 $112.50 

3^ tons pods at $6 21.00 $133-65 $94-50 $38.85 

LOSS ON FIELD A— 1907 

Total Per acre 

Net income from beans $38.85 $ 5.89 

Cost of orchard 84.97 12.87 

Loss $46.12 $ 6.98 

A summary of the cost of the orchard, the 
net income from the crop, the income from 
the orchard and the profit and loss by years 
for the eight years follows: 



SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, 
FIELD A 

Net Income 

Crop income from Cost of f 6.6 acres \ 

Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss 

1903.. Corn ...$ 15.17 $109.87 $94-70 

216.16 173-59 

83.78 40.65 

80.14 $40.76 

84.97 46.12 

169 



1904. 


.Beans .. 


42.57 


1905. 


.Beans .. 


43-13 




.Beans .. 


120.90 


1907. 


.Beans .. 


38.85 



APPLE GROWING 

Net Income 

Crop income from Cost of i 6.6 acres \ 

Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss 

1908.. Corn .. 37.68 64.22 26.54 

1909.. Oats and 
strawber- 
ries 100.61 $27.88 84.73 43-76 

1910.. Wheat . 60.70 38.65 96.35 3.00 

Totals $459-6i $66.53 $620.22 $87.52 $381.60 

Net loss on field for eight years $294.08 

Average annual loss 38.76 

Total cost an acre, exclusive of income 124.27 

Total cost an acre, including income 44-55 

Total net cost a hundred trees 62.97 

Total net cost an apple tree 1.37 

Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income. . . . 3.80 

Total labor cost an acre 35-09 

Total cash cost an acre , . 89.19 

We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 
an acre during the eight years of its life, but 
that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the 
orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 
an acre. It is safe to say that the orchard 
would have cost even more than it did had it 
not been for the crops, for many operations 
charged directly to the crops would of necessity 
have been charged to the trees. The cost a 
hundred trees does not mean much, as it often 
happens that not all the trees are covered by 
an operation and as the number of trees an acre 
greatly affects these costs. 

We have another and younger orchard upon 
which a record has been kept. This orchard of 
170 



THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

five acres contains 126 standard apple trees, 
"filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It 
was set in the spring of 1908, so that the trees 
have grown four seasons. The permanents 
(apples) are set 2^ by 40 feet apart, so that, 
with the peaches between, the trees stand 18 
by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been 
grown between the tree rows each season. The 
first season a full seven rows, twenty-eight 
inches apart, were planted In the wider space; 
the second and third season six rows, and the 
last season only four rows. The crop 
has been very good each year until the 
last. One application of manure, one crop of 
clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed 
under, and in addition a liberal amount of com- 
mercial fertilizer has been used with each crop. 
This year the peach trees bore their first crop. 
The record of the four years Is as follows : 

SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OI.D 
APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD 

Net Income 

Crop income from Cost of 

Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss 

1908.. Beans ..$ 63.37 $130.12 $62.75 

1909.. Beans .. 66.70 85.03 18.33 

1910. .Beans .. 79.81 83.39 3-58 

1 911 . .Beans .. 53.20 $46.05 61.95 $37-30 

Totals $267.08 $46.05 $360.49 %Z7'ZO $84.66 

171 



APPLE GROWING 

Total cost an acre, exclusive of income $72.10 

Total cost an acre, including income 9.47 

Total net cost a hundred trees 473 

Total net cost an apple tree 376 

Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income. . . . 2.86 

These figures show a still lower cost of grow- 
ing trees to bearing age. After paying all ex- 
penses connected with the growing of the trees, 
including the interest on the land at $150 an 
acre, and deducting the net profit from the 
crops of beans and the sales from the first crop 
of peaches we find that the growing of the 
trees has cost us $9.47 an acre, or 37 J4 cents 
an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop 
been grown in the orchard it would have cost 
us at least $62.89 an acre after deducting the 
income from the first peach crop. The peach 
trees are now at full bearing age, and should 
show a good profit from this time on. Possi- 
bly at five and certainly at six years of age this 
orchard will entirely have paid for itself. 
The only possible further charge which could 
be made against this orchard is the crop income 
which might have been obtained from the land 
had the trees not been there. We estimated 
that the presence of the trees cut down the 
crop of beans from the land 30 per cent. As 
the average net income from beans was $13.35 
172 



THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a 
year — an insignificant sum. 

In Bearing. — Having given the reader an 
idea of the probable cost of bringing an orchard 
to bearing age, it may be well also to give the 
cost of producing apples in a mature apple or- 
chard. Our bearing apple orchard consists of 
6.1 acres containing 234 trees. About one- 
half of the trees, or 1 10, are 36 years old. The 
remainder are nearly 50 years of age. As they 
are all in one block and handled together, the 
charges cannot well be separated. One hun- 
dred and thirty-four of the trees are Baldwins, 
44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins County Kings, 
and the remainder odd varieties. For the 
whole period of ten years the orchard has had 
very good care and attention. 

A cover crop was not sown every year, but 
when it was used the charge was made against 
the orchard. The manure charge, omitted 
because of uncertainty as to the exact amount 
applied and as to its real value, is the only 
thing lacking in this table. 

Two or three sprayings have been made 

every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux mixture 

and Paris green were used, but since then the 

commercial brands of lime sulphur and arsenate 

173 



APPLE GROWING 

of lead have taken their place, nearly doubling 
the cost of the spray material. The average 
cost of the material for spraying has been $2.50 
per acre, or nearly three and one-half cents per 
barrel of apples harvested. In 19 10 this cost 
was $3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel. 

TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRO- 
DUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE ORCHARD 



Cover Spray 


ing 


5% 

int. Equip. O'vh'd 


Labor 


Total 


Tear 


crop mat. 


Bar. on inv. 


charge charge cost 


cost 


1902 . 


$6.64 $117,88 $27.45 


$25.00 


$2.97 


$339.45 


$519.39 


1903 . 


11.22 


164.92 


28.88 


25.00 


2.88 


249.55 


482.56 


1904 . 


10.50 


109.90 


30.50 


25.00 


3.93 


180.55 


360.38 


1905 . 


$6.10 12.45 


88.80 


30.50 


25.00 


3.40 


158,06 


324.31 


1906 . 


14.85 


112.35 


33.06 


25.00 


4.78 


211.76 


401.80 


1907 . 


10.00 16.85 


79.80 


35.56 


25.00 


4.89 


192.30 


364.40 


1908 . 


9.75 


205.45 


37.76 


30.09 


5.09 


293.50 


583.55 


1909 . 


8.68 19.26 


196.35 


41.97 


38.98 


5.91 


280.78 


591.93 


1910 . 


23.89 


116.90 


45.75 


32.39 


5.58 


175.26 


399.77 


1911 . 


10.50 27.08 


206.38 


45.75 


32.39* 


5.53* 


275.00* 


602.63 



10 yr. av. $15.25 $139.87 $35.73 $28.37 $4.78 $235.62 
Av. per acre 2.50 22.93 5.86 4.65 .78 38.63 
Av. per bbl .036 .327 .084 .066 .011 .552 
* Partly estimated, records not yet complete. 


$463.07 

75.92 

1.08 



The cost of the package has varied from 28 
to 38 cents and has averaged about 32^ cents, 
or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter 
amount varies greatly with the crop. 

Interest has in all cases been figured at five 
per cent., but as the price of the land has varied 
from $90 an acre at the beginning of the period 
to Its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due 
both to its improvement and to a general in- 
174 



THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

crease in the price of land, the amount of inter- 
est has also varied. The same is true of the 
equipment charge which has steadily increased 
each year. The average valuation of the land 
for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. 
This means an annual interest charge of $5.86 
per acre, or 8j^ cents a barrel. The equip- 
ment charge, which is interest, repairs, and de- 
preciation on the machinery used in the or- 
chard, amounts to more than 6j^ cents a bar- 
rel, or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance 
on the buildings distributed per acre for the 
farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over 
one cent per barrel. These costs have also in- 
creased in the last few years. 

Labor is the largest single item. For the 
first four years this was estimated on the basis 
of the cost for the last six years, for which more 
careful records were kept. It is computed at 
its actual cost to us on the farm, which was 
I5J^ cents an hour for men and 13 J^ cents an 
hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per 
day for man and team. The cost of the labor 
to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of 
apples was ^^ cents, or $38.63 per acre with 
an average yield of 70 barrels per acre. 

To sum up these items of cost we find that 

175 



APPLE GROWING 

taking the average of ten years with an annual 
crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 
acres of old apple orchard that the costs per 
barrel have been as follows: spray material, 
$.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, 
$.084; use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; 
labor, $.552; and a total of $1.08 per barrel. 
If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a 
barrel be added, the total will be $1.14. As 
we have said, these costs per barrel vary with 
the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per 
acre the cost per barrel was only $.99, but when 
it was 34 barrels per acre this cost rose to $1.73 
per barrel. In 19 10 we grew a crop of 55 
barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel. 

It may be of interest to some to know what 
the income and profit were on this orchard. 
For this purpose we give the following table 
showing the yield, income, cost, and net profit 
for each of the ten years, and the average: 

Yield in Income Income Cost Net Profit 





bbls. 


bbls. 


inc. culls 


per 


bbls. 


inc. culls 


Year 


per A. 


only 


and drops 


bbl. 


alone and drops 


1902 , 


. 103 


$1.96* 


$1.46* 


$.83 


$1.13 


$.63 


1903 . 


71 


1.90 


2.23 


I. II 


79 


I.T2 


1904 


■ 51 


1.66 


1.78 


I.I5 


.51 


.63 


1905 


. 49 


2.30 


2.68 


1. 10 


1.20 


1.58 


1906 , 


■ 53 


1.96 


2.25 


1.25 


•71 


1.30 


1907 . 


■ 34 


3-49 


4.10 


1-73 


1.76 


2.2,7 


1908 , 


. 96 


2.03 


2.32 


.99 


1.04 


1.33 


1909 


• 92 


3.00 


3.38 
176 


i.g6 


1.94 


2.32 



THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 

1910 . 55 2.69 3.03 1.20 1.49 1.83 

191 1 . 100 2.06 2.32 .99I 1.07 J I -331: 

loyr. av. 70 2.15 2.47 1.08 1.07 1.39 

*In arriving at these incomes different divisors were 
used. Two hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk 
and these were not used in getting the average income 
from barrels only, but were used in getting the average in- 
come including culls and drops. 

X Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for 
the season. 



THE END 



177 



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burns, cuts, etc. Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, 
as well as the ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. In 
eludes a list of the necessary medical and surgical supplies. 

The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, ivrites as fol- 
loivs: "/ ha've been on the trail for years (tivelve in the 
Klondike and Alaska) and hanje airways ivanted just such 
a book as Dr. Moody' s'Backivoods Surgery and Medicine.'''' 



Outing Handbooks 



CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart. "The less a man 
carries in his pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kep- 
hart. This book tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. 
Every step is traced — the selection of provisions and utensils, with the 
kind and quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires 
the cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or 
woods, fields, or streams may provide — even to the making of desserts. 
Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience. Every 
recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who 
wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion with- 
out reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is, adapted 
equally well to the trips of every length and to all conditions of climate, 
season or country; the best possible companion for one who wants to 
travel light and live well. The chapter headings tell their own story. 
Provisions — Utensils — Fires — Dressing and Keeping Game and Fish — 
Meat — Game— Fish and Shell Fish — Cured Meats, etc. — Eggs — Bread- 
stuffs and Cereals — Vegetables — Soups — Beverages and Desserts. 

^^ Scores of ne^w hints may he obtained by the housekeeper 

as 'well as the camper from Camp Cookery. ^^ — Portland 

Oregonian. 

**/ am inclined to think that the ad'vice contained ifi Mr. 

Kephart' s book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading 

his receipts for cooking nvild foiul — they made me hungry.' ' 

— Neijo y'ork Herald. 

''^The most useful and njaluable book to the camper yet 

published ." ^Grand %apids Herald. 

^^Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent 

dnjoeller in the country ." — Edivin Markham in the San 

Francisco Examiner. 

CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp. A working guide 
for the man who wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the 
woods against the storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, 
brush shelters, snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. 
Practically the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and 
Mr. Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these imple- 
ments. More elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and 
detailed plans reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author. 

EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson. Dr. 

Hutchinson takes the common-sense view that the greatest problem in 
exercise for most of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest 
error in exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in ath- 
letics is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors 
in Exercise— Exercise and the Heart— Muscle Maketh Man— The Danger 
of Stopping Athletics — Exercise that Rests. It is writlen in a direct 



Outing Handbokks 



matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong 
emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best calcu- 
lated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or consciousness 
of body weakness. 

"// contains good physiology as -iv ell as good common sense, 
ivritten by an acute obsewer and a logical reasoner, 
luho has the courage of his con'victions and is a master of 
English style.''— D. A. Sargent, M. T)., Sargent School 
for Physical Education. 

^^One of the most readable books ever qvritten on physi- 
cal exercise.'"— Luther H. Gulick, M. D., Department 
of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage toundation. 
"J little book for the busy manivritten in brilliant style." 
— Kansas City Star. 

THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp. Com- 
bines the pleasure of catching fish with the gratification of following the 
sport in the most approved manner. The suggestions offered are help- 
ful to beginner and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing condi- 
tions covered is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far 
Off," "Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn 
Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love for 
the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine angler 
will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and Equipment." 
The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is supplemented 
in this later work by equally valuable information on how to use the 
equipment. 

" fFill encourage the beginner and gi'ue pleasure to the 

expert fisherman.'"— N . Y. Sun. 

"A 'vein of catching enthusiasm rnns through e'very 

chapter.'" —Scientific American. 

FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp. 

A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fish- 
ing kit of the freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and 
clothing. Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full in- 
struction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel, pike, 
muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes. Prices 
are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method of 
selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is described. 

"^ complete guide to the angler buying a ne-vo outfit." — 

Peoria Hercdd. 

*^The man ad'vised by Mr. Camp toil I catch his fish." — 

Seattle P. I. 

'^E'ven the seasoned angler nvill read this hook <vj'ith 

profit." — Chicago Tribune. 



Outing Handbooks 



THE HORSE — Its Breeeding, Care and Use. By David 
Buffum. Mr, Buffum takes up the common, every-day problems of the 
ordinary horse-user, such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, 
breaking and the cure for various equine vices. An important chapter 
is that tracing the influx of Arabian blood into the English and Ameri- 
can horses and its value and limitations. Chapters are included on 
draft-horses, carriage horses, and the development of the two-minute trot- 
ter. It is distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to 
know how he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same 
time. 

"/ am recommending it to our students as a useful refer- 
ence book for both the practical farmer and the student.'" 
— T. R. Arkell, Animal Husbandman , N . H. Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

"Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint 
and is "valuable for reference^vork.''' — Prof.E. L. Jordan, 
Professor of Animal Industry , Louisiana State Uni'versity. 



MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum. This 
deals with the various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different 
crops, common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common 
sense methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn- 
out soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use. 



THE MOTOR BOAT-Its Selection, Care and Use. By H. W. 
Slauson. The intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the 
type of boat best suited to his particular needs, the power required for 
the desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. 
The care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are in- 
cluded on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions, its 
care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer. 



NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E. T. Mor- 
ton. A short treatise on the simpler methods of finding position at sea 
by the observation of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and 
chronometer. It is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who 
wish to know the simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved 
in taking a boat anywhere off shoi-e. Illustrated with drawings. 



Outing Handbooks 



OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells. Mr. Wells has 

perfected a method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or 
whistle which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle 
can be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that of 
any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and can 
be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light, or 
topography. 

"/ find it to be the simplest and most practical book on 
signalling published.'''' — Frank H. Schrenk, Director of 
Camp Belgrade. 

^'One of the finest things of the kind I ha^e e-ver seen. I 
believe my sei'enyear old boy can learn to use this system^ 
and I knoijj that ive nvill find it 'very useful here in our 
'Boy Scout ivork.'" — Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Direc- 
tor, r. M. C. A., Jacksonville, Fla. 



PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. ByR.B.Sando. The chap 
ters outlined in this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and 
yarding, fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feed- 
ing, hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc.. What to do 
at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth about 
common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry parasites and 
diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is attached. It is 
in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction of the man who de- 
sires to begin poultry raising on a large or small scale and to avoid the 
ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is prone. All the statements 
are based on the authors own experience and special care has been taken 
to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration. 



PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. 
Wheeler. Mr. Wheeler has chapters on some of the best known gen- 
eral purpose birds such as Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyan- 
dottes. Mediterraneans, Orpingtons, and Cornish, describing the pecu- 
liarities and possibilities of each. There are additional chapters on the 
method of handling a poultry farm on a small scale with some instruc- 
tions as to housing the birds, and so forth, and also a chapter on the 
market side of poultry growing. 



RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins. Part 

I describes the various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as 
range and adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever, 
bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part 

II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target practice, 
snap shooting, and wing shooting. 



Outing Handbooks 



SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes. 

This is a companion book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of 
the breeds, the standard types, appproved methods of breeding, kennel- 
ing, training, care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on 
the ordinary diseases and simple remedies, 

SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart. This book is 
devided into two parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the 
Shotgun. Mr. Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, 
trajectory and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges 
and also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth. 
In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range, the 
effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types of boring, 
the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth. 

TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef B runner. After twenty 
years of patient study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from 
his intimate knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks 
and Tracking" shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate 
animal or bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game 
and decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise 
pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the footprints 
the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded, and many 
other things about wild animals and birds. All material has been gath- 
ered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs form an 
important part of the work, as the author has made faithful pictures of 
the tracks and signs of the game followed. The Hst is : The White-Tailed 
or Virginia Deer — The Fan-Tailed Deer— The Mule-Deer — The Wapiti or 
Elk— The Moose— The Mountain Sheep— The Antelope— The Bear— 
The Cougar— The Lynx— The Domestic Cat— The Wolf— The Coyote— 
The Fox— The Jack Rabbit— The Varying Hare— The Cottontail Rabbit— 
The Squirrel— The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret— The Otter— 
The Mink — The Ermine— The Beaver— The Badger— The Porcupine— 
The Skunk— Feathered Game — Upland Birds— Waterfowl— Predatory 
Birds — This book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced 
hunter. 

"This book studied carefully, <ivill enable the reader to 
become as luell versed in tracking lore as he could by 
years of actual experience.'" —Leiviston Journal. 



Outing Handbooks 



WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles A skins. The 

only practical manual in existance dealing with the modern gun. It 
contains a full discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, 
swing and half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the 
gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of the 
various points to the different birds commonly shot in this country. A 
chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes with a forceful 
and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the field. 

"// is difficult to understand hoiv anyone nvho takes a de- 
light in hunting can afford to he ^without this n^aluahle 
hooky — Chamber of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore. 

^^This book ivill proi>e an invaluable manual to the true 
sportsman, <vjhether he be a tyro or expert y — Book Ne-ixis 
Monthly. 

^^Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful 
reading.^'' — A^. Y. Times. 



THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C. S. 
Stanworth, U. S. N. and Others. Deals with the practical handling 
of sail boats, with some light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It 
includes such subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and 
taking soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles 
that may be avoided, care of the gasolene motor and yachting etiquette. 



22 iHi^^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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